
Class iVZ( o ^4- 

Book -04. 



Gopiglitls^' 



JO 



CfiEffilGHT DEJ^Sm 



Science and Learning 
In France 



Science and Learning 
In France 



WITH A SURVEY OF OPPORTUNITIES 

FOR AMERICAN STUDENTS IN 

FRENCH UNIVERSITIES 



AN APPRECIATION 

BT 

AMERICAN SCHOLARS 




THE SOCIETY FOR 
AMERICAN FELLOWSHIPS IN FRENCH UNIVERSITIES 

1917 






Copyright 19 1 7, by 
John H. Wigmore « 



AH Rights Reserved 



OCT 25 1917 ■ 

©CI.A47671S Cu 



TO 

THE SCHOLARS OF FRANCE 

WORTHY CUSTODIANS 

OF THEIR COUNTRY'S INTELLECTUAL GREATNESS 

THIS VOLUME 

PREPARED IN A TIME 

WHEN FRANCE HAS REACHED 

THE HEIGHTS OF MORAL GREATNESS 

IS OFFERED 

WITH HEARTFELT ADMIRATION AND SYMPATHY 

IN THE NAME OF 

THE SCHOLARS OF AMERICA 



Preface 

Our purpose in this volume is, primarily, to put before 
the American public the contributions of France in all 
fields of scientific knowledge, and to show her status in 
the forefront of the world's progress; and, in addition, 
to furnish to American university students all informa- 
tion bearing on graduate work in France. 

Each chapter sets forth briefly, for a particular field: 

1. The record of French scholarship during the past 
century; the notable achievements; the eminent leaders; 
the special lines of development; in general, the share 
of France in the world's progress; 

2. The courses of instruction given, now or recently, 
at the universities of France, particularly at the Uni- 
versity of Paris; the names of the most important schol- 
ars, with mention of their principal contributions and of 
the special fields of research over which they preside; 

3. The facilities available for study and research, 
including the libraries, laboratories, archives, and mu- 
seums, the auxiliary institutes, special schools, and learned 
societies and committees. 

There is also: 

An Introduction, describing the general intellectual 
spirit of France and Paris, and the interest and attrac- 
tions that capital and country offer to the foreign scholar; 
and 

An Appendix, describing the organization of French 
universities, the standards of preparation expected of the 
student, the system of degrees, the customs as to resi- 
dence and attendance, the regulations as to fees and 
the like; and other facts useful to the visiting student. 

ix 



X PREFACE 

The book has been made possible by the liberaHty of 
the Society for American Fellowships in French Univer- 
sities, which has borne all the expense of publication. 

The ultimate and cardinal mission of the book will be 
an act of homage to French science. Let the scholars 
of France know that their American colleagues are eager to 
pay this just tribute ! The great place of France in the 
world of knowledge — the place that it always has 
held and always will hold — can never be forgotten by 
their debtors on this side of the ocean. 

The men who wrote this book are qualified to speak 
on their subjects; a glance at their names will show that 
their word is decisive. They represent American schol- 
arship. They have spoken frankly, sincerely, and 
judicially, without reserve or exaggeration. 

Their message goes out to the American people. 
May it convey some fresh light to our fellow-countrymen, 
and help to fix in their conviction the true status of 
French learning in the world! 

This book was planned and begun towards the end of 
the year 191 5; and in presenting it now, when the bonds 
of mutual esteem and gratitude between France and 
America have been drawn even more closely, the Authors 
believe that they are not only pointing the youth of our 
country to splendid sources of knowledge and wisdom, 
but are also serving, in the measure of their ability, to 
strengthen and confirm that comradeship of scholars 
which symboHzes the enduring friendship of the two 
nations. 

The Editor. 

June, 1 917. 



Contents 

PAGE 

List of Authors xiii 

List of Sponsors xvii 

Introduction 

The Mind of France i 

The Intellectual Inspiration of Paris .... 5 

Anthropology 19 

Archaeology and History of Art .... 29 

Astronomy 45 

Botany and Agriculture 55 

Chemistry 67 

Criminology 79 

Education 87 

Engineering . 95 

Geography . 105 

Geology — 

Geology 115 

Mineralogy and Petrology 122 

Palaeontology 127 

History 131 

Law 141 

Mathematics 161 

Medicine — 

Introductory Survey . 171 

Physiology 175 

Neurology 179 

Medicine 187 

Surgery 196 

Pathology 202 

xi 



xii CONTENTS 

Philology — 

Classical 207 

Romance 221 

Oriental 233 

Semitic 243 

English 250 

Philosophy 257 

Physics . 271 

Political Science — including 
Economics and 

International Law ........ 279 

Psychology 303 

Religion . 311 

Sociology 321 

Zoology . 329 

Appendix I: Educational Advantages for Ameri- 
can Students in France; with a History of the 
Recent Changes in its University System . . 345 

Appendix II: Institutions of Higher Learning; 
their Organization, Degrees, Requirements, 
Fees, etc 373 

Appendix III: Practical Suggestions to the In- 
tending Graduate Student 413 

Index 427 



List of Authors 



Introduction 
Charles W. Eliot 

Harvard University 

George E. Hale 

Foreign Secretary of the 
National Academy of Sciences 

Anthropology 
Charles H. Hawes 

Dartmouth College 

Alfred M. Tozzer 

Harvard University 

Archaeology 
George H. Chase 

Harvard University 

Harold N. Fowler 

Western Reserve University 

A. L. Frothingham 

Princeton University 

J. R. Wheeler 

Columbia University 

Astronomy 
Philip Fox 

Dearborn Observatory 
(Northwestern University) 

George E. Hale 

Carnegie Institution 
Observatory, Mt. Wilson 

W. D. MacMillan 

University of Chicago 

Forest R. Moulton 

University of Chicago 



Henry N. Russell 

Halsted Observatory 
(Princeton University) 

Botany and Agriculture 
John M. Coulter 

University of Chicago 

Chemistry 
Wilder D. Bancroft 

Cornell University 

Frank B. Dains 

University of Kansas 

L. J. Henderson 

Harvard University 
Criminology 
Charles A. Ellwood 

University of Missouri 

Maurice Parmelee 

College of the 
City of New York 

Arthur J. Todd 

University of Minnesota 

Education 
John Dewey 

Columbia University 

Frederic E.Farrington 

U. S. Bureau of Education 

Paul H. Hanus 

Harvard University 

Charles H. Judd 

University of Chicago 



xiu 



XIV 



LIST OF AUTHORS 



Engineering 
Ira N. Mollis 

Worcester Polytechnic In- 
stitute 

Henry M. Howe 

Columbia University 

Alex. C. Humphreys 

Stevens Institute of Tech- 
nology 

Albert Sauveur 

Harvard University 

Geography 
Wm. M. Davis 

Harvard University 

R. H. Whitbeck 

University of Wisconsin 

Geology (including Mineral- 
ogy, Petrology, and Pa- 
laeontology) 
Thos. C. Chamberlin 

University of Chicago 

U. S. Grant 

Northwestern University 

Wm. H. Hobbs 

University of Michigan 

Henry F. Osborn 

Columbia University 

S. W. WiLLISTON 

University of Chicago 

Alex. N. Winchell 

University of Wisconsin 

History 
Charles H. Haskins 

Harvard University 

James A. James 

Northwestern University 



Andrew C. McLaughlin 

University of Chicago 

Dana C. Munro 

Princeton University 

J. T. Shotwell 

Columbia University 

Law 
Joseph H. Beale 

Harvard University 

Layton B. Register 

University of Pennsylvania 

MuNROE Smith 

Columbia University 

John H. Wigmore 

Northwestern University 

Mathematics 
David R. Curtiss 

Northwestern University 

Thos. F. Holgate 

Northwestern University 

Eliakim H. Moore 

University of Chicago 

E. B. Wilson 

Massachusetts Institute of 
Technology 

Medicine (including Physi- 
ology, Pathology, Medi- 
cine, Surgery, and 
Neurology) 

Llewellys F. Barker 

Johns Hopkins University 

Arthur D. Bevan 

University of Chicago 

Frederick P. Gay 

University of California 



LIST OF AUTHORS 



XV 



Wm. H. Howell 

Johns Hopkins University 

Theodore C. Janeway 

Johns Hopkins University 

Hugh T. Patrick 

Northwestern University 

D. B. Phemister 

University of Chicago 

Morton Prince 

Tufts College 

Wm. S. Thayer 

Johns Hopkins University 

Philology, Classical 
Wm. Gardner Hale 

University of Chicago 

E. K. Rand 

Harvard University 

John A. Scott 

Northwestern University 

Philology y Romance 
Charles H. Grandgent 

Harvard University 

H. R. Lang 

Yale University 

Kenneth McKenzie 

University of Illinois 

Raymond Weeks 

Columbia University 
Philology, Oriental 
Franklin Edgerton 

University of Pennsylvania 

E. Washburn Hopkins 

Yale University 

Charles R. Lanman 

Harvard University 



Philology, Semitic 
J. R. Jewett 

Harvard University 

Charles C. Torrey 

Yale University 

Philology, English 
Arthur C. L. Brown 

Northwestern University 

RoLLO W. Brown 

Wabash College 

John L. Lowes 

Washington University 

» 

Philosophy 
Ralph B. Perry 

Harvard University 

James H. Tufts 

University of Chicago 

Charles B. Vlbbert 

University of Michigan 

R. M. Wenley 

University of Michigan 

Physics 
Henry Crew 

Northwestern University 

A. A. MiCHELSON 
University of Chicago 

Wallace C. Sabine 

Harvard University 

Political Science (including 
Economics and Inter- 
national Law) 
James W. Garner 

University of Illinois 

Leon C. Marshall 

University of Chicago 



XVI 



LIST OF AUTHORS 



Jesse S. Reeves 

University of Michigan 

Abbott P. Usher 

Cornell University 
Psychology 

James R. Angell 

University of Chicago 

Robert H. Gault 

Northwestern University 

Religion 

George B. Foster 

University of Chicago 

Norman B. Nash 

Episcopal Theological School 
(Cambridge) 

Sociology 
Thomas N. Carver 

Harvard University 



Frederick S. Deibler 

Northwestern University 

Franklin H. Giddings 

Columbia University 

Edward A. Ross 

University of Wisconsin 

Zoology 
Gary N. Calkins 

Columbia University 

Frank R. Lillie 

University of Chicago 

Wm. a. Locy 

Northwestern University 

Appendix 
James Geddes, Jr. 

Boston University 

Charles B. Vibbert 

University of Michigan 



Officers of the Authors' Qommittee 



John H. Wigmore 

Northwestern University 

Chairman 



Charles H. Grandgent 

Harvard University 

Vice-Chairman 



£ditor 
John H. Wigmore 

Northwestern University 



List of Sponsors 

These American scholars have expressed a cordial desire to join 
with the Authors in making this hook a national homage ^ offered 
from the Universities of America to the Universities of France: 



G. G. Abbot 

Smithsonian Institution 

Frank Frost Abbott 

Princeton University 

J. F. Abbott 

Washington University 

W. C. Abbott 

Yale University 

Isaac A. Abt 

Northwestern University 

C. D. Adams 

Dartmouth College 

E. D. Adams 

Leland Stanford University 

Edward L. Adams 
University of Michigan 

G. B. Adams 

Yale University 

Joseph Q. Adams, Jr. 
Cornell University 

Thomas S. Adams 

Yale University 

R. G. AlTKEN 
Lick Observatory 

Homer Albers 
Boston University 

Raymond M. Alden 

Leland Stanford University 

H. B. Alexander 

University of Nebraska 

Charles E. Allen 
University of Wisconsin 

Clifford G. Allen 

Leland Stanford University 



R. C. Allen 

State Geologist of Michigan 

Cephas D. Allin 

University of Minnesota 

Francis G. Allinson 

Brown University 

Hector Alliot 
Southwest Museum 

C. W. Alvord 

University of Illinois 

Joseph S. Ames 

Johns Hopkins University 

F. M. Anderson 
Dartmouth College 

C. M. Andrews 

Yale University 

E. Wyllys Andrews 
Northwestern University 

J. N. Anderson 

University of Florida 

J. S. Ankeny 

University of Missouri 

C. F. Ansley 

University of Iowa 

R. C. Archibald 

Brown University 

A. C. Armstrong 

Wesleyan University 

Edward C. Armstrong 

Johns Hopkins University 

Joseph C. Arthur 

Purdue University 

George F. Atkinson 
Cornell University 



XVll 



XVlll 



LIST OF SPONSORS 



C. B. Atwell 

Northwestern University 

Wallace W. Atwood 

Harvard University 

George D. Ayers 
University of Idaho 

F. C. Babbitt 
Trinity College 

Earle B. Babcock 

New York University 

Herman Babson 

Purdue University 

B. W. Bacon 

Yale University 

Grace M. Bacon 
Mt. Holyoke College 

Edward P. Baillot 

Northwestern University 

Geo. p. Baker 
Harvard University 

C. S. Baldwin 

Columbia University 

Allan P. Ball 

College of the City of New York 

Margaret Ball 
Mt. Holyoke College 

Thomas Barbour 
Harvard University 

Charles R. Bardeen 
University of Wisconsin 

E. E. Barnard 

Yerkes Observatory 

G. E. Barnett 

Johns Hopkins University 

WiNFiELD S. Barney 
Pennsylvania College 

Jos. Barrell 
Yale University 

Leroy C. Barret 
Trinity College 

Albert M. Barrett 
University of Michigan 

George A. Barton 
Bryn Mawr College 

Florence Bascom 
Bryn Mawr College 



O. H. Basquin 

Northwestern University 

S. E. Bassett 

University of Vermont 

Henry M. Bates 

University of Michigan 

Katherine L. Bates 

Wellesley College 
W. N. Bates 

University of Pennsylvania 
W. J. Battle 

University of Texas 
Paul Baur 

Yale University 

Jean B. Beck 

Bryn Mawr College 

ScoTT E. W. Bedford 

University of Chicago 
Harold H. Bender 

Princeton University 

Henry Marvin Belden 

University of Missouri 

Harris M. Benedict 

University of Cincinnati 

R. R. Bensley 

University of Chicago 

Charles E. Bennett 

Cornell University 

L. L. Bernard 

University of Missouri 

E. Bernbaum 

University of Illinois 

Andre Beziat 

Tulane University 

H. a. Bigelow 

University of Chicago 

Herman M. Biggs 

New York University 

C. p. Bill 

Western Reserve University 

F. H. Billings 

University of Kansas 

W. V. Bingham 

Carnegie Institute 

Hiram Bingham 

Yale University 

G. D. BlRKHOEF 
Harvard University 



LIST OF SPONSORS 



XIX 



David H. Bishop 

University of Mississippi 

F. W. Blackmar 

University of Kansas 

Eliot Blackwelder 
University of Illinois 

G. A. Bliss 
University of Chicago 

D. S. Blondheim 

University of Illinois 

Joseph C. Bloodgood 

Johns Hopkins University 

Ernest L. Bogart 
University of Illinois 

M. T. Bogert 

Columbia University 

Geo. H. Boke 

University of California 

H. E. Bolton 

University of California 

Alexander L. Bondurant 

University of Mississippi 

R. J. Bonner 

University of Chicago 

Percy Bordwell 
University of Iowa 

J. L. BORGERHOEF 

Western Reserve University 

Benjamin P. Bourland 

Western Reserve University 

Caroline B. Bourland 
Smith College 

H. E. Bourne 

Western Reserve University 

Archibald L. Bouton 

New York University 

Benjamin L. Bo wen 
Ohio State University 

E. W. BOWEN 
Randolph-Macon College 

Isaiah Bowman 

American Geographical Society 

Jean C. Bracq 

Vassar College 

Edgar E. Brandon 

Miami University 



John C. Branner 

Stanford University 

James H. Breasted 

University of Chicago 

W. T. Brewster 

Columbia University 

J. R. Brackett 
Harvard University 

P. W. Bridgman 

Harvard University 

Thomas H. Briggs 
Columbia University 

A. P. Brigham 
Colgate University 

ISABELLE BrONK 
Swarthmore College 

Walter C. Bronson 
Brown University 

A. H. Brooks 

United States Geological Survey 

Alfred M. Brooks 

Indiana University 

Carleton Brown 

University of Minnesota 

E. V. L. Brown 

University of Chicago 

E. W. Brown 

Yale University 

Frederic W. Brown 

Bowdoin College 
Harry G. Brown 

University of Missouri 

Philip M. Brown 

Princeton University 

Charles A. Bruce 

Ohio State University 

J. Douglas Bruce 
University of Tennessee 

Henry R. Brush 

University of North Dakota 

M. P. Brush 

Johns Hopkins University 

W. F. Bryan 

Northwestern University 

H. G. Bryant 

Philadelphia Geographical Society 



XX 



LIST OF SPONSORS 



Carl D. Buck 

University of Chicago 

Gertrude Buck 

Vassar College 

Douglas L. Buffum 

Princeton University 

Charles J. Bullock 

Harvard University 

Hermon C. Bumpus 
Tufts College 

W. L. BURDICK 

University of Kansas 

George L. Burr 

Cornell University 

E. D. Burton 

University of Chicago 

Harry E. Burton 

Dartmouth College 

Henry F. Burton 
University of Rochester 

Richard Burton 

University of Minnesota 

Stephen H. Bush 
University of Iowa 

W. T. Bush 

Columbia University 

Frederick A. Bushee 
University of Colorado 

Nicholas M. Butler 

Columbia University 

Henry T. B yford 

University of Illinois 

S. Calvert 

University of Missouri 

W. W. Campbell 

Lick Observatory 

Arthur G. Canfield 
University of Michigan 

Walter B. Cannon 

Harvard University 

Edward Capps 

Princeton University 

A. J. Carlson 

University of Chicago 

D. H. Carnahan 
University of Illinois 



E. C. Case 

University of Michigan 

Julia H. Caverno 

Smith College 

J. McKeen Cattell 

Columbia University 

Barry Cerf 

University of Wisconsin 

Lyman Chalkley 

Kentucky University 

Robert Chambers, Jr. 

Cornell University 

Frank W. Chandler 

University of Cincinnati 

A. C. Chapin 

Wellesley College 

F. Stuart Chapin 

Smith College 

C. E. Chapman 

University of California 

Mabel A. Chase 

Mt. Holyoke College 

W. H. Chenery 

Washington University 

Frederick D. Cheydleur 

Williams College 

E. P. Cheyney 

University of Pennsylvania 

Clarence G. Child 

University of Pennsylvania 

C. M. Child 

University of Chicago 

Gilbert Chinard 

University of California 

Henry C. Christian 

Harvard University 

Geo. B. Churchill 

Amherst College 

Philip H. Churchman 

Clark College 

Edward B. Clapp 

University of CaUfornia 

Charles C. Clarke 

Yale University 

Walter E. Clark 
University of Chicago 



LIST OF SPONSORS 



XXI 



Walter E. Clark 

College of the City of New York 

Wm. B. Clark 

Johns Hopkins University 

Albert T. Clay 

Yale University 

Harold L. Cleasby 

Syracuse University 

Frederic E. Clements 

University of Minnesota 

Harry E. Clifford 

Harvard University 

George A. Coe 

Union Theological Seminary 
Victor Coffin 

University of Wisconsin 

Lotus D. Coffman 

University of Minnesota 

William M. Cole 

Harvard University 

C. B. Coleman 

Butler College 

William W. Comfort 

Cornell University 

J. R. Commons 

University of Wisconsin 
G. C. COMSTOCK 

University of Wisconsin 

Clara Conklin 

University of Nebraska 

E. G. Conklin 

Princeton University 

Walter W. Cook 

Yale University 

Charles H. Cooley 

University of Michigan 

A. C. Coolidge 

Harvard University 

James W. Cooper 

Whitman College 
W. F. COOVER 

Iowa College of Agriculture 
C. L. Cory 

University of California 

Geo. p. Costigan, Jr. 

Northwestern University 
E. S. CORWIN 

Princeton University 



Stanley Coulter 

Purdue University 

Frederick V. Coville 

United States Department of Agri- 
culture 

Henry C. Cowles 
University of Chicago 

Wm. L. Cowles 
Amherst College 

Elizabeth B. Cowley 
Vassar College 

C. W. Grand ALL 

University of Florida 

R. S. Crane 

Northwestern University 

J. P. Wickersham Crawford 
University of Pennsylvania 

J. E. Creighton 
Cornell University 

A. L. Cross 

University of Michigan 

Whitman Cross 

United States Geological Survey 

W. L. Cross 
Yale University 

F. B. Crossley 

Northwestern University 

Ellwood p. Cubberley 

Standford University 
J. W. CUNLLFFE 

Columbia University 
W. C. Curtis 

University of Missouri 
Harvey Gushing 

Harvard University 

R. A. Daly 

Harvard University 

Lindsay T. Damon 

Brown University 

Edward S. Dana 

Yale University 

Francis Daniels 

University of Missouri 
E. P. Dargan 

University of Chicago 
Henri C. David 

University of Chicago 



XXll 



LIST OF SPONSORS 



W. J. Davidson 

Northwestern University 

Bradley M. Davis 

University of Pennsylvania 

D. J. Davis 

University of Illinois 

W. W. Davis 

University of Kansas 

E. Dawson 

Hunter College 
Edmund E. Day 

Harvard University 

James Q. Dealey 
Brown University 

Louis Delamarre 

College of the City of New York. 

J. B. De Lee 

Northwestern University. 

Wm. K. Denison 
Tufts College. 

Ralph B. Dennis 

Northwestern University 

A. L. P. Dennis 

University of Wisconsin 

Joseph V. Denney 
Ohio State University 

Samuel C. Derby 
Ohio State University 

Edward T. Devine 

Columbia University 

H. J. Devonport 

Cornell University 

William M. Dey 

University of North Carolina 

Sherwood O. Dickerman 
Williams College 

L. E. Dickson 

University of Chicago 

Frank H. Dixon 

Dartmouth College 

R. B. Dixon 

Harvard University 

Eleanor C. Doak 
Mt. Holyoke College 

Armistead M. Dobie 
University of Virginia 



George Dock 

Washington University 

W. E. Dodd 

University of Chicago 

Daniel K. Dodge 

University of Illinois 

J. M. DODSON 

University of Chicago 

Gaston Douay 

Washington University 

Earle W. Dow 

University of Michigan 

Charles A. Downer 

College of the City of New York 

E. C. Dudley 

Northwestern University 

Benjamin M. Duggar 
Missouri Botanical Garden 

Knight Dunlap 

Johns Hopkins University 

Edward D. Durand 

University of Minnesota 

Charles L. Durham 

Cornell University 

George M. Dutcher 
Wesleyan University 

E. L. Earp 

Drew Theological Seminary 

E. M. East 

Harvard University 

De la Warr B. Easter 

Washington and Lee University 

Frederick C. Eastman 

University of Iowa 

LuciLE Eaves 

Simmons College 

David L. Edsall 

Massachusetts General Hospital 

James C. Egbert 
Columbia University 

C. H. Eigenmann 
University of Indiana 

L. P. Eisenhart 

Princeton University 

J. B. Ekeley 

University of Colorado 



LIST OF SPONSORS 



xxm 



Eloise Ellery 

Vassar College 

A. Caswell Ellis 

University of Texas 

Ellen D. Ellis 
Mt. Holyoke College 

Charles A. Ellwood 

University of Missouri 

Herbert C. Elmer 

Cornell University 

J. Elmore 

Leland Stanford University 

R. T. Ely 

University of Wisconsin 

Benjamin K. Emerson 

Amherst College 

C. P. Emerson 

University of Indiana 

Oliver F. Emerson 

Western Reserve University 

S. F. Emerson 

University of Vermont 

Fred. Parker Emery 

Dartmouth College 

Joseph Erlanger 

Washington University 

F. a. C. Ernst 

University of Wisconsin 

Harold C. Ernst 

Harvard University 

John Erskine 

Columbia University 

H. M. Evans 

University of California 

Frank C. Ewart 

Colgate University 

B. C. Ewer 

Pomona College 

James Ewing 

Cornell University 

Arthur Fairbanks 

Boston Museum of Fine Arts 

H. R. Fairclough 

Leland Stanford University 

J. A. Fairlie 

University of Illinois 



Edith Fahnestock 

Vassar College 

W. C. Farabee 

University of Pensylvania 

Frank E. Farley 

Simmons College 

William G. Farlow 

Harvard University 

H. W. Farnam 

Yale University 

William O. Farnsworth 

University of Pittsburgh 

Max Farrand 

Yale University 

Charles E. Fay 
Tufts College 

Edwin W. Fay 
University of Texas 

Percival B. Fay 

University of California 

N. M. Fenneman 
University of Cincinnati 

W. S. Ferguson 
Harvard University 

F. A. Fetter 

Princeton University 

J. Walter Fewkes 

United States National Museum 
J. A. Field 

University of Chicago 

John H. Finley 

New York State Education De- 
partment 

C. R. Fish 

University of Wisconsin 

Irving Fisher 

Yale University 
Christabel F. Fiske 

Vassar College 

Geo. C. Fiske 

University of Wisconsin 
Thos. S. Fiske 

Columbia University 

John D. Fitz- Gerald 

University of Illinois 

John D. Fleming 
University of Colorado 



XXIV 



LIST OF SPONSORS 



J. B. Fletcher 

Columbia University 

Robert H. Fletcher 

Grinnell College 

F. M. Fling 

University of Nebraska 

Guy S. Ford 

University of Minnesota 

Henry J. Ford 

Princeton University 

J. D. M. Ford 

Harvard University 

James Ford 

Harvard University 

H. E. W. FOSBROKE 

General Theological Seminary 

Benjamin 0. Foster 

Leland Stanford University 

H. D. Foster 

Dartmouth College 

Frank F. Frantz 

Vanderbilt University 

Pierre J. Frein 

University of Washington 

Edwin B. Frost 

Yerkes Observatory 

Theodore C. Frye 

University of Washington 

Caroline E. Furness 
Vassar College 

Charles S. Gager 

Brooklyn Botanical Garden 

Eugenie Galloo 

University of Kansas 

Stanley L. Galpin 

Trinity College 

Caroline M. Galt 

Mt. Holyoke College 

W. E. Gamble 

University of Illinois 

H. N. Gardiner 

Smith College 

Christian Gauss 

Princeton University 

E. F. Gay 

Harvard University 



Charles M. Gayley 

University of California 

William F. Gephart 
Washington University 

J. L. Gerig 

Columbia University 

Gordon H. Gerould 

Princeton University 

A. R. GiFFORD 

University of Vermont 

Basil L. Gildersleeve 

Johns Hopkins University 

Eugene A. Gilmore 

University of Wisconsin 

O. C. Glaser 

University of Michigan 

William H. Glasson 

Trinity College 

Harold C. Goddard 
Swarthmore College 

P. E. Goddard 

American Museum of Natural 
History 

A. J. GOLDFARB 

College of the City of New York 

J. Paul Goode 

University of Chicago 

Thomas D. Goodell 

Yale University 

Frank J. Goodnow 

Johns Hopkins University 
E. J. GOODSPEED 
University of Chicago 

Nolan A. Goodyear 

Emory University 

Harry M. Gordin 

Northwestern University 

Richard J. H. Gottheil 

Columbia University 
Caswell Grave 

Johns Hopkins University 
C. A. Graves 

University of Virginia 

John H. Gray 

University of Minnesota 

R. P. Gray 

University of Maine 



LIST OF SPONSORS 



XXV 



Louis M. Greeley 

Northwestern University 

EvARTS B. Greene 

University of Illinois 

Herbert E. Greene 
Johns Hopkins University 

Edwin Greenland 

University of North Carolina 

Chester N. Greenough 

Harvard University 

G. G. Groat 

University of Vermont 

G. Grojean 

Leland Stanford University 

Clifford G. Grulee 

University of Chicago 

F. B. GUMMERE 
Haverford College 

Foster E. Guyer 

Dartmouth College 

Arthur T. Hadley 

Yale University 

A. S. Haggett 

University of Washington 

Elizabeth H. Haight 
Vassar College 

E. E. Hale 

Union College 

Edwin H. Hall 
Harvard University 

J. P. Hall 

University of Chicago 

WiNEiELD S. Hall 

Northwestern University 

Albert E. Halstead 

University of Illinois 

Theodore E. HAmLTON 
University of Ohio 

W. H. Hamilton 

Amherst University 

M. B. Hammond 

Ohio State University 

Frank H. Hankins 

Clark University 

Irving Hardesty 
Tulane University 



Samuel B. Harding 

University of Indiana 

C. W. Hargitt 

Syracuse University 

Herbert Harley 

Northwestern University 

Robert A. Harper 

Columbia University 

Karl P. Harrington 

Wesleyan University 

Philip W. Harry 
Colby CoUege 

John W. Harshberger 

University of Pennsylvania 

Albert B. Hart 

Harvard University 

B. C. H. Harvey 

University of Chicago 

Carlton J. H. Hayes 

Columbia University 

DoREMUs A. Hayes 

Northwestern University 

E. C. Hayes 

University of Illinois 

John F. Hayford 

Northwestern Ui^iversity 

E. R. Hedrick 
University of Missouri 

L. Hektoen 

University of Chicago 

F. B. R. Hellems 
University of Colorado 

Geo. L. Hendrickson 
Yale University 

George N. Henning 

George Washington University 

C. J. Herrick 
University of Chicago 

James B. Herrick 
University of Chicago 

Amos S. Hershey 
University of Indiana 

Amy Hewes 

Mt. Holyoke College 

A. W. Hewlett 

Leland Stanford University 



XXVI 



LIST OF SPONSORS 



John G. Hibben 

Princeton University 

F. C. HiCHS 

University of Cincinnati 

HiNDA T. Hill 

North Carolina Normal College 

John Hill 

University of Indiana 

Elijah C. Hills 

Colorado College 

Murray A. Hines 

Northwestern University 

Edward W. Hinton 
University of Chicago 

W. E. Hocking 

Harvard University 

F. H. HODDER 

University of Kansas 

Wesley N. Hohfeld 

Yale University 

R. T. HOLBROOK 
Haverford College 

A. D. Hole 
Earlham College 

E. H. Hollands 

University of Kansas 

Jacob H. Hollander 

Johns Hopkins University 

Henry W. Holmes 

Harvard University 

S. J. Holmes 

University of California 

W. H. Holmes 

United States National Museum 

Donald Hooker 

Johns Hopkins University 

E. A. HOOTON 
Harvard University 

Hugo C. Horack 

University of Iowa 

R. G. HosKiNS 

Northwestern University 

W. E. Hotchkiss 

Northwestern University 

William O. Hotchkiss 

Wisconsin State Geologist 



Lynn H. Hough 

Northwestern University 

Theodore Hough 

University of Virginia 

George E. Howard 

University of Nebraska 

George Howe 

University of North Carolina 

W. D. Howe 

University of Indiana 

Geo. E. Howes 

Wmiams College 

William Hoynes 

University of Notre Dame 

Ales Hrdlicka 

United States National Museum 

F. G. Hubbard 

University of Wisconsin 

Hector J. Hughes 

Harvard University 

E. M. HULME 

University of Idaho 

W. H. HuLME 

Western Reserve University 

Charles H. Hunkins 

Brown University 

Reid Hunt 

Harvard University 

T. Whitefield Hunt 

Princeton University 

W. J. HUSSEY 

Detroit Observatory 

C. A. Huston 

Stanford University 

H. B. HUTCHINS 

University of Michigan 

J. L. Hutchinson 

Cornell University 

Chas. Cheney Hyde 

Northwestern University 

RoscoE R. Hyde 

Indiana Normal School 

Jos. P. Iddings 

University of Chicago 

E. F. Ingals 

University of Chicago 



LIST OF SPONSORS 



XXVll 



Alexander J. Inglis 

Harvard University 

E. S. Ingraham 

University of Ohio 

Edmund J. James 

University of Illinois 

J. Franklin Jamieson 
Carnegie Institution 

T. A. Jenkins 

University of Chicago 

Jeremiah W. Jenks 

New York University 

H. S. Jennings 

Johns Hopkins University 

M. W. Jernegan 

University of Chicago 

Elmer E. Jones 

Northwestern University 

Guernsey Jones 

University of Nebraska 

H. C. Jones 

University of West Virginia 

Lewis R. Jones 

' University of Wisconsin 

Wm. Carey Jones 
University of California 

Alvin S. Johnson 

Leland Stanford University 

D. W. Johnson 

Columbia University 

George E. Johnson 

Harvard University 

H. Johnson 

Bowdoin University 

Henry Johnson 

New York Teachers College 

J. B. Johnston 

University of Minnesota 

Daniel Jordan 

Columbia University 

Harvey E. Jordan 

University of Virginia 

Harry Pratt Judson 

University of Chicago 

A. B. Kanavel 

Northwestern University 



I. L. Kandel 

Columbia University 

Edward Kasner 

Columbia University 

G. F. Kay 

University of Iowa 

Edwin R. Keedy 

University of Pennsylvania 

A. H. Keller 

Yale University 

W. E, Kellicott 

Goucher College 

Geo. Dwight Kellogg 

Union University 

Howard A. Kelly 

Johns Hopkins University 

F. W. Kelsey 

University of Michigan 

Edwin W. Kemmerer 

Princeton University 

Jos. F. Kemp 

Columbia University 

Arthur I. Kendall 

Northwestern University 

W. S. Kendall 

Yale University . 

Arthur E. Kennelly 

Harvard University 

C. W. Kent 

University of Virginia 

Roland G. Kent 

University of Pennsylvania 

Andrew Keogh 

Yale University 

Alexander M. Kidd 

University of California 

W. H. KlEKHOFER 
University of Wisconsin 

J. S. KiNGSLEY 
University of Illinois 

David Kinley 

University of Illinois 

Joseph E. Kirkwood 

University of Montana 

Charles Knapp 
Columbia University 



XXVlll 



LIST OF SPONSORS 



Henry McE. Knower 

University of Cincinnati 

C. A. KOFOID 

University of California 

G. P. Kropp 

Columbia University 

G. T. Ladd 

Yale University 

Theodore de Lacuna 

Bryn Mawr College 

Gordon J. Laing 

University of Chicago 

A. G. Laird 

University of Wisconsin 

Henry C. Lancaster 

Amherst College 

Alered C. Lane 

Tufts College 

O. W. Lane 

Tufts CoUege 

Courtney Lancdon 

Brown University 

Ernest F. Lai>tcley 

Massachusetts Institute of Tech- 
nology 

James L. Lardner 

Northwestern University 

W. W. Lawrence 
Columbia University 

Abby Leach 
Vassar College 

Irville C. Lecompte 

Yale University 

Geo. Lefevre 

University of Missouri 
J. A. Leighton 

Ohio State University 
W. G. Leland 

American Historical Association 

J. E. Le Rosstgnol 

University of Nebraska 

A. O. Leuschner 

University of California 

MoRiTz Levi 

University of Michigan 

Charlton M. Lewis 
Yale University 



E. Percival Lewis 
University of California 

G. N. Lewis 

University of California 

I. F. Lewis 

University of Virginia 

William Draper Lewis 

University of Pennsylvania 

WiNEORD L. Lewis 
Northwestern University 

M. F. LiBBY 

University of Colorado 

J. P. LiCHTENBERGER 
University of Pennsylvania 

William M. Lile 

University of Virginia 

Samuel M. Lindsay 

Columbia University 

W. E. LiNGELBACH 

University of Pennsylvania 

A. A. Livingston 

Columbia University 

Burton E. Livingston 

Johns Hopkins University 

A. H. Lloyd 

University of Michigan 

F. C. LOCKWOOD 

University of Arizona 

L. E. LoCKWOOD 
Wellesley College 

Gonzales Lodge 

Columbia University 

Louis A. Loiseaux 

Columbia University 

John H. Long 

Northwestern University 

O. Floyd Long 

Northwestern University 

W. T. Longcope 

Columbia University 

Horace C. Longwell 

Princeton University 

Louis E. Lord 

Oberlin College 

J. E. Lough 

New York University 



LIST OF SPONSORS 



XXIX 



A. O. LOVEJOY 

Johns Hopkins University 

E. O. LOVETT 
Rice Institute 

A. Lawrence Lowell 
Harvard University 

W. H. Loyd 

University of Pennsylvania 

W. E. LUNT 

Cornell University 

F. B. LUQUIENS 
Yale University 

Joseph Lustrat 
University of Georgia 

Peter C. Lutkin 

Northwestern University 

Frank E. Lutz 

American Museum of Natural 
History 

A. H. Lybyer 

University of Illinois 

Matthew C. Lynch 
University of California 

Margaret Lynn 
University of Kansas 

H. L. McBain 

Columbia University 

W. D. MacClintock 
University of Chicago 

C. E. McClung 

University of Pennsylvania 

Duncan B. MacDonald 

Hartford Theological Seminary 

Daniel T. MacDougal 
Desert Laboratory 

R. M. MacDougall 

New York University 
Thomas McCrae 

Jefferson Medical School 
Nelson G. McCrea 

Columbia University 

Walton B. McDaniel 

University of Pennsylvania 

E. B. McGilvary 

University of Wisconsin 

H. McGuiGAN 

Northwestern University 



Anna J. McKeag 

Wellesley College 

Hugh M. McKenna 

University of Illinois 

William McPherson 
Ohio State University 

G. H. McKnight 

Ohio State University 

W. R. Mackenzie 

Washington University 

O. H. Maclay 

Northwestern University 

J. J. R. MACLEOD 

Western Reserve University 

Grace H. Macurdy 

Vassar College 

Jesse Macy 
Grinnell College 

William F. Magie 

Princeton University 

R. V. D. Magoffin 

Johns Hopkins University 

George C. Manly 

University of Denver 

J. M. Manly 

University of Chicago 

W. R. Manning 
University of Texas 

C. Carroll Marden 

Princeton University 

Antonio Mariononi 
University of Arkansas 

Edward L. Mark 
Harvard University 

Lionel S. Marks 

Harvard University 

Clarence S. Marsh 

Northwestern University 

Paul L. Martin 

Creighton University 

E. Whitney Martin 
Leland Stanford Universi4:y 

James F. Mason 

Cornell University 

Frank J. Mather 
Princeton University 



XXX 



LIST OF SPONSORS 



A. P. Mathews 
University of Chicago 

Shailer Mathews 

University of Chicago 

Brander Matthews 

Columbia University 

Alfred G. Mayer 
Princeton University 

Geo. H. Mead 

University of Chicago 

W. E. Mead 

Wesleyan University 

Alexander Meiklejohn 

Amherst College 

J. C. Merriam 

University of California 

Elmer T. Merrill 

University of Chicago 

Wm. a. Merrill 

University of California 

R. B. Merriman 

Harvard University 

M. M. Metcalf 
Oberlin College 

Adolf Meyer 

Johns Hopkins University 

Truman Michelson 

United States Bureau of American 
Ethnology 

Wm. E. Mikell 

University of Pennsylvania 

Robert W. Millar 

Northwestern University 
G. A. Miller 

University of Illinois 
G. M. Miller 

Wabash College 
R. A. MiLLlKAN 

University of Chicago 

Edwin Mims 

Vanderbilt University 

Stewart L. Mims 

Yale University 
J. B. Miner 

Carnegie Institute of Technology 
Raleigh C. Minor 

University of Virginia 



S. A. Mitchell 

University of Virginia 

Julien C. Monnet 

University of Oklahoma 

Paul Monroe 

Columbia University 

Wm. p. Montague 

Columbia University 

J. A. Montgomery 

University of Pennsylvania 

A. W. Moore 

University of Chicago 

Cllfford H. Moore 

Harvard University 

Clarence K. Moore 

University of Rochester 

E. S. Moore 

Pennsylvania State College 
Frank G. Moore 

Columbia University 

George F. Moore 

Harvard University 

George T. Moore 

Washington University 

J. Leverett Moore 

Vassar College 

J. P. Moore 

University of Pennsylvania 
Adelbert Moot 

University of Buffalo 

L. T. More 

University of Cincinnati 

S. Griswold Morley 
University of California 
George D. Morris 

University of Indiana 

W. A. Morris 

University of California 
Bernard Moses 

University of California 
Clelia D. Mosher 

Leland Stanford University 

Lewis A. Mott 

College of the City of New York 
Elton J. Moulton 

Northwestern University 

Wilfred P. Mustard 

Johns Hopkins University 



LIST OF SPONSORS 



XXXI 



Arthur B. Myrick 

University of Vermont 

H. F. Nachtrieb 

University of Minnesota 

H. V. Neal 
Tufts CoUege 

W. A. Neilson 
Harvard University 

AvEN Nelson 

University of Wyoming 

Clara A. Nelson ^ 

Ohio Wesleyan University 

G. H. Nettleton 
Yale University 

William R. Newbold 

University of Pennsylvania 

Frederick C. Newcombe 

University of Michigan 

H. H. Newman 

University of Chicago 

A. O. Norton 
Wellesley College 

Wallace Note stein 

University of Minnesota 

Frederick G. Novy 
University of Michigan 

A. A. NoYES 

Massachusetts Institute of Tech- 
nology 
W. A. NOYES 

University of Illinois 

H. C. Nutting 

University of California 

W. F. Ogburn 
Reed College 

F. A. Ogg 

University of Wisconsin 

Ida H. Ogilvie 
Columbia University 

M. B. Ogle 

University of Vermont 

Thomas E. Oliver 

University of Illinois 

Everett W. Olmstead 

University of Minnesota 

Raymond C. Osburn 

Connecticut College for Women 



Winthrop J. V. Osterhout 
Harvard University 

H. A. Overstreet 

College of the City of New York 

Arthur L. Owen 

University of Kansas 

Frederick M. Padelford 
University of Washington 

L. J. Paetow 

University of California 

Curtis H. Page 
Dartmouth College 

Elizabeth H. Palmer 
Vassar College 

George H. Palmer 

Harvard University 

Dewitt Parker 

University of Michigan 

Geo. H. Parker 

Harvard University 

Horatio Parker 

Yale University 

Amos W. Patten 

Northwestern University 

Wm. Patten 

Dartmouth College 

John T. Patteson 

University of Texas 

F. L. Paxson 

University of Wisconsin 

Charles Peabody 

Harvard University 

Raymond Pearl 

Maine Agricultural Experiment 
Station 

Geo. B. Pegram 

Columbia University 

Adeline Pellissier 

Smith College 
J. H. Penniman 

University of Pennsylvania 
B. Perrin 

Yale University 
Bliss Perry 

Harvard University 

A. Petrunkevitch 
Yale University 



xxxu 



LIST OF SPONSORS 



Ruth S. Phelps 

University of Minnesota 

William L. Phelps 

Yale University 

F. S. Philbrick 

University of California 

John Pickard 

University of Missouri 

Frank H. Pike 

Columbia University 

W. B. Pillsbury 

University of Michigan 

Louis V. Pirsson 

Yale University 

W. B. Pitkin 

Columbia University 

Samuel B. Platner 

Adelbert College 

William V. Pooley 

Northwestern University 

W. T. Porter 

Harvard University 

Edwin Post 

De Pauw University 

Albert K. Potter 

Brown University 

Mary Ross Potter 

Northwestern University 

Louise Pound 

University of Nebraska 

J. B. Pratt 

Williams College 

W. K. Prentice 

Princeton University 

Henry S. Pritchett 

Carnegie Foundation for Teachers 

Lawrence Pumpelly 

Cornell University 

W. A. Pusey 

University of Illinois 

RoBT. S. Radford 

University of Tennessee 

A. P. Raggio 

University of Maine 

S. W. Ransom 

Northwestern University 



Frederick L. Ransome 

United States Geological Survey 

Perley O. Ray 

Northwestern University 

John D. Rea 

Earlham College 

CoNYERS Read 

University of Chicago 

Byron J. Rees 

Williams College 

Frank O. Reed 

University of Wisconsin 

W. p. Reeves 

Kenyon College 

H. F. Reid 

Johns Hopkins University 

J. E. Reighard 

University of Michigan 

Ira Remsen 

Johns Hopkins University 

E. R. Rensch 

Mount Holyoke College 

Edward L. Rice 

Ohio Wesleyan University 

John P. Rice 

Williams College 

Richard A. Rice 
Smith College 

Wm, N. Rice 

Wesleyan University 

A. N. Richards 

University of Pennsylvania 

H. S. Richards 

University of Wisconsin 

Herbert M. Richards 

Columbia University 

Joseph W. Richards 

Lehigh University 

Theodore W. Richards 

Harvard University 

Leon J. Richardson 

University of California 

Mary L. Richardson 
Smith College 

W. Z. Ripley 

Harvard University 



LIST OF SPONSORS 



XXXlll 



D. M. Robinson 

Johns Hopkins University 

Edward Robinson 

New York Metropolitan Museum 

Fred N. Robinson 

Harvard University 

J. H. Robinson 

Columbia University 

A. K. Rogers 
Yale University 

John C. Rolfe 

University of Pennsylvania 

James Hardy Ropes 

Harvard University 

W. T. Root 

University of Wisconsin 

M. A. ROSANOFF 

University of Pittsburgh 

Eleanor Rowland 
Reed College 

C. Rubner 

Columbia University 

Geo. H. Sabine 

University of Missouri 

Joseph Schafer 

University of Oregon 

Lucy M. Salmon 
Vassar College 

Alfonso de Salvio 
Northwestern University 

E. B. DE Sauze 
Temple University 

R. L. Sanderson 

Yale University 

J. S. SCHAPIRO 

College of the City of New York 

Felix E. Schelling 
University of Pennsylvania 

Albert Schinz 

Smith College 

E. C. Schmidt 

University of Illinois 

William H. Schofield 

Harvard University 

J. G. SCHURMAN 
Cornell University 



F. N. Scott 

University of Michigan 

Mary Augusta Scott 
Smith College 

W. A. Scott 

University of Wisconsin 

Wm. B. Scott 

Princeton University 

ViDA D. Scudder 
Wellesley College 

Jacob B. Segall 

University of Maine 

Colbert Searles 

University of Minnesota 

Helen M. Searles 
Mt. Holyoke College 

C. E. Seashore 

State University of Iowa 

Horace Secrist 

Northwestern University 

E. R. A. Selignan 

Columbia University 

G. C. Sellery 

University of Wisconsin 

William A. Setchell 

University of California 

Lewis P. Shanks 

University of Pennsylvania 

Edgar F. Shannon 

Washington and Lee University 

Frank C. Sharp 

University of Wisconsin 

J. B. Shaw 

University of Illinois 

Edward S. Sheldon 

Harvard University 

W. H. Sheldon 
Dartmouth College 

William P. Shepard 
Hamilton College 

F. W. Shepardson 

University of Chicago 

Lucius A. Sherman 

University of Nebraska 

Stuart P. Sherman 
University of Illinois 



XXXIV 



LIST OF SPONSORS 



Margaret Sherwood 

Wellesley College 

H. W. Shimer 

Massachusetts Institute of Tech- 
nology 

F. W. Shipley 

Washington University 

Paul Shorey 

University of Chicago 

Grant Showerman 

University of Wisconsin 

W. H. SlEBERT 

Ohio State University 

E. G. SmLER 

New York University 

V. G. SiMKHOVITCH 
Columbia University 

William E. Simonds 
Knox College 

S. Simpson 

Cornell University 

F. Slate 

University of California 

Moses S. Slaughter 
University of Wisconsin 

C. S. Slighter 

University of Wisconsin 

William M. Sloane 

Princeton University 

A. W. Slocum 

University of Vermont 
Albion W. Small 

University of Chicago 

Charles N. Smiley 

Iowa College 
Alexander Smith 

Columbia University 

Bertram G. Smith 

Michigan Normal College 

Charles Forster Smith 

University of Wisconsin 
C. Alphonso Smith 

United States Naval Academy 
Edgar F. Smith 

University of Pennslyvania 

Erwin F. Smith 

Department of Agriculture 



George O. Smith 

United States Geological Survey 
H. L. Smith 

University of Wisconsin 

Harold B. Smith 

Worcester Polytechnic Institute 
Harry De F. Smith 

Amherst College 

Hugh A. Smith 

University of Wisconsin 

R. Wilson Smith 

McMaster University 

Stanley A. Smith 

Leland Stanford University 

Warren Du Pre Smith 

University of Oregon 

William R. Smith 

Bryn Mawr CoUege 

Henry L. Smyth 

Harvard University 

Herbert W. Smyth 

Harvard University 

Guy E. Snavely 
Allegheny College 

Ada L. T. Snell 
Mt. Holyoke College 

Franklyn B. Snyder 

Northwestern University 

Virgil Snyder 

Cornell University 
Edward H. Spieker 

Johns Hopkins University 

William G. Spiller 
University of Pennsylvania 

H. J. Spinden 

American Museum of Natural 
History 

C. M. Spofeord 
Harvard University 

Joel Stebbins 

University of Illinois 

Oliver M. W. Sprague 

Harvard University 

Madison Stathers 

University of West Virginia 

D. A. K. Steele 
University of Illinois 



LIST OF SPONSORS 



XXXV 



Frederic C. VanSteenderen 
Lake Forest College 

Frank L. Stevens 

University of Illinois 

G. N. Stewart 

Western Reserve University 

C. R. Stockard 

Cornell University 

Anson P. Stokes 

Yale University 

Elmer E. Stoll 

University of Minnesota 

Harlan F. Stone 

Columbia University 

Ellery C. Stowell 

Columbia University 

Richard P. Strong 

Harvard University 

Charles Macaulay Stuart 

Northwestern University 

DuANE R. Stuart 

Princeton University 

H. W. Stuart 

Leland Stanford University 

Edson R. Sunderland 
University of Chicago 

A. H. Sutherland 
Yale University 

George F. Swain 
Harvard University 

Thos. W. Swan 

Yale University 

J. R. SWANTON 

Smithsonian Institution 

Glen L. Swiggett 
University of Tennessee 

W. O. Sypherd 
Delaware College 

Henry Taber 
Clark University 

William H. Tapt 

Yale University 

Ellen B. Talbot 
Mt. Holyoke College 

Marion Talbot 
University of Chicago 



MiGNON Talbot 
Mt. Holyoke College 

J. H. Tanner 
Cornell University 

F. B. Tarbell 

University of Chicago 

J. S. P. Tatlock 

Leland Stanford University 

Edward W. Taylor 
Harvard University 

Robert L. Taylor 
WUliams College 

Olin Templin 

University of Kansas 

A. A. Tenney 

Columbia University 

Benjamin S. Terry 
University of Chicago 

H. P. Thieme 

University of Michigan 

Frank Thilly 
Cornell University 

Calvin Thomas 

Columbia University 

Joseph M. Thomas 

University of Minnesota 

C. B. Thompson 
Wellesley College 

Ashley H. Thorndike 

Columbia University 

E. L. Thoristdike 

Colvunbia University 

Charles F. Thwing 

Western Reserve University 

Ed. S. Thurston 

University of Minnesota 

E. B. TiTCHENER 
Cornell University 

H. A. Todd 

Columbia University 

Albert H. Tolman 
University of Chicago 

Payson J. Treat 

Leland Stanford University 

William Trelease 
University of Illinois 



XXX VI 



LIST OF SPONSORS 



N. M. Trenholme 

University of Missouri 

William Trickett 

Dickinson School of Law 

Rodney H. True 

United States Department of 
Agriculture 

Harry R. Trusler 

University of Florida 

E. R. Turner 

University of Michigan 

F. J. Turner 

Harvard University 

Charles A. Turrell 

University of Arizona 

H. W. Tyler 

Massachusetts Institute of Tech- 
nology 

Charles M. Underwood, Jr. 

Simmons College 

A. H. Upham 

Miami University 

Warren Upham 

Minnesota Historical Society 

Roland G. Usher 

Washington University 

W. R. Vance 

University of Minnesota 

Paul Van Dyke 

Princeton University 

J. N. Van der Vries 

University of Kansas 

La Rue Van Hook 

Columbia University 

C. H. Van Tyne 

University of Michigan 

E. B. Van Vleck 

University of Wisconsin 

Victor C. Vaughan 

University of Michigan 

Oswald Veblen 

Princeton University 

Francis P. Venable 

University of North Carolina 

J. M. Vincent 

Johns Hopkins University 

W. V. Vreeland 
Princeton University 



M. Edward Wadsworth 

University of Pittsburgh 

G. D. Walcott 

Hamline University 

A. T. Walker 

University of Kansas 

W. Walker 
Yale University 

Alice Walton 

Wellesley College 

H. B. Ward 

University of Illinois 

Robert DeC. Ward 

Harvard University 

John N. Ware 

University of the South 

Charles H. Warren 

Massachusetts Institute of Tech- 
nology 

E. H. Warren 

Harvard University 

F. M. Warren 

Yale University 

H. Langford Warren 

Harvard University 

Herbert L. Warren 

Harvard University 

Jacob Warshaw 

University of Missouri 

Isabelle Watson 

Carleton College 

J. B. Watson 

Johns Hopkins University 

T. L. Watson 

University of Virginia 

U. G. Weatherly 

University of Indiana 
Herbert J. Webber 
University of California 

A. G. Webster 

Clark University 

D. HuTTON Webster 

University of Nebraska 

J. C. Webster 

University of Chicago 

William H. Welch 
Johns Hopkins University 



LIST OF SPONSORS 



xxxvu 



Charles H. Weller 

University of Iowa 

J. E. Wells 

Beloit College 

Leslie C. Wells 
Clark College 

Barrett Wendell 

Harvard University 

Andrew F. West 

Princeton University 

J. H. Westcott 
Princeton University 

Monroe N. Wetmore 

Williams College 

Benjamin Ide Wheeler 

University of California 

Arthur L. Wheeler 

Bryn Mawr College 

Wm. M. Wheeler 

Harvard University 

G. M. Whicher 

Hunter College 

G. H. Whipple 

University of California 

George C. Whipple 

Harvard University 

W. A. Whitaker 
University of Kansas 

Albert B. White 
University of Minnesota 

F. I. White 

Boston University 

Florence D. White 
Vassar College 

Henry S. White 
Vassal College 

John Williams White 

Harvard University 

S. F. Whiting 
Wellesley College 

Marian P. Whitney 
Vassar College 

H. L. WiEMAN 

University of Cincinnati 

Leo Wiener 

Harvard University 



R. L. Wilbur 

Leland Stanford University 

A. M. Wilcox 

University of Kansas 

Elmer A. Wilcox 
University of Iowa 

E. J. WiLCZYNSKI 

University of Chicago 

N. Wilde 

University of Minnesota 

H. H. Wilder 
Smith College 

Inez W. Wilder 

Smith College 

M. S. WiLDMAN 

Leland Stanford University 

H. L. WiLGUS 

University of Michigan 

E. H. WiLKINS 

University of Chicago 

C. S. Williamson 

University of Illinois 

W. F. WiLLCOX 
Cornell University 

Frederick W. Williams 

Yale University 

Talcott Williams 

Columbia University 

Mabel C. Williams 

University of Iowa 

Bailey Willis 

Leland Stanford University 
Samuel Williston 

Harvard University 

C. C. WiLLOUGHBY 

Harvard University 

Geo. Grafton Wilson 

Harvard University 

Henry H. Wilson 

University of Nebraska 

J. G. Wilson 

Northwestern University 
C. T. Winchester 

Wesleyan University 
Clark Wissler 

American Museum of Natural 
History 



XXXVIU 



LIST OF SPONSORS 



LiGHTNER Wither 

University of Pennsylvania 

A. B. Wolfe 

University of Texas 

J. E. Wolff 

Harvard University 

B. M. WOODBRIDGE 
University of Texas 

James A. Woodburn 

University of Indiana 

E. H. Woodruff 

Cornell University 

L. L. Woodruff 

Yale University 

James H. Woods 

Harvard University 

Frederic C. Woodward 

University of Chicago 

J. B. Wood WORTH 

Harvard University 

T. S. WOOLSEY 
Yale University 

Howard Woolston 

College of the City of New York 

C. H. C. Wright 

Harvard University 

A. S. Wright 

Case School of Applied Science 

H. W. Wright 

Lake Forest University 

L. J. Wylie 
Vassal College 



R. M. Yerkes 

Harvard University 

Abram Van Epps Young 

Northwestern University 

Allyn a. Young 

Cornell University 

Anne S. Young 
Mt. Holyoke College 

Bert E. Young 

Vanderbilt University 

Charles E. Young 
Beloit College 

Clarence H. Young 

Columbia University 

J. W, Young 

Dartmouth College 

J. W. A. Young 

University of Chicago 

Karl Young 

University of Wisconsin 

Mary V. Young 
Mt. Holyoke College 

Robert T. Young 

University of North Dakota 

C. S. Zdanowicz 

University of Wisconsin 

C. F. Zeck, Jr. 

Southern Methodist University 

Chas. Zeleny 

University of Illinois 

Hans Zinsser 

New York College of Physicians 
and Surgeons 



Introduction 

THE MIND OF FRANCE 

THE INTELLECTUAL INSPIRATION 
OF PARIS 



IN' 




PARIS — Le « Penseup » de Rodi 



THE THINKER 

(Rodin's Statue at the Entrance to the Pantheon) 



The Mind of France' 

In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, France 
produced a large number of great masters in all fields of 
thought — in literature, science, and the arts. She thus 
kept abreast of all intellectual progress in Europe, and 
often led the way. 

These great men were usually skilful teachers as well 
as creators and discoverers; so that they had worthy 
disciples — groups of younger scholars who spread abroad 
the masters' ideas, and prolonged their influence by adding 
the needed interpretations and modifications. In many 
fields, the works of these French leaders set standards not 
only for France, but for the world. 

Their intellectual work possessed, as a rule, certain 
qualities which characterize the French mind, such as 
broad sympathy, constructive imagination, and a ten- 
dency to prefer the concrete or realistic to the abstract, 
and fact to speculation. These intellectual characteristics 
of the French have proved to be extraordinarily perma- 
nent, abiding generation after generation, and surviving 
immense political and social changes. The French scholar 
is apt to be an open-minded man, receptive toward new 
ideas, and an ardent lover of truth fluent and progres- 
sive. The French scientists have rarely been extreme 
specialists, narrow in their interests and their chosen 
objects. They have recognized that no science can be pur- 
sued successfully in isolation; its affiliations and adjuncts 
must also be studied. They have not been subdued 

i[By Charles William Eliot, emeritus President of Harvard 
University. — Ed.] 



2 INTRODUCTION 

by the elaborate sorting and compiling machinery of 
modern scholarship. 

The French people under all their forms of govern- 
ment — monarchical, imperial, or republican — have al- 
ways shown cordial appreciation of intellectual achieve- 
ments, and particularly of scientific investigation in 
philology, history, physical science, biology, sociology, 
and law. They place high among their national heroes 
their great scholars, writers, artists, and scientists. This 
popular appreciation has given vitality and enduring 
national influence to French scholarship in a great va- 
riety of fields. 

All French masters in science and literature have had 
the advantage, in expounding and communicating the 
fruits of their labors, of expressing themselves in the 
French language, which lends itself to elegance and 
clearness, and to nice discrimination and perfect accuracy 
in statement. It is well-nigh impossible for teacher or 
expounder to be clumsy, obscure, or disorderly in the 
French language. Indeed, many of the most profound 
French philosophers and investigators have also exhibited 
a high degree of literary skill. A French style may be 
exaggerated, redundant, or diffuse, but it never fails to 
be clear. The French language, therefore, has been of 
great advantage to the French masters of thought, and 
through them to all the students who follow them — 
native or foreign. 

To an unexampled degree the spirit of liberty has 
animated all the French leaders and schools of thought 
for two centuries. For them intellectual inquiry has been 
free. This is true not only in the field of social and political 
ideas and the philosophy of government, but also in the 
institutions intended to promote the development of 
science, literature, and art. The French Academies of 
Science and Letters all illustrate it, and so do the noble 



INTRODUCTION 3 

professional traditions in French Courts of Justice and 
the French Bar, both the Courts and the Bar having set 
high examples of courage, independence, and bold insis- 
tence on judicial and professional privileges. Science, 
letters, and art in France have always shared, and often 
enkindled, the people's love of freedom and their pas- 
sionate advocacy of democracy. 

American students, thinking to take advanced studies 
in Europe, have often in times past supposed the French 
to be an inconstant, pleasure-loving, materialistic people. 
They have now learned through the Great War that the 
French are an heroic people, constant to great political 
and social ideals, a people intelligent, fervid, dutiful, and 
devoted to family, home, and country. They have also 
come to see that the peculiar national spirit of France is 
one of the great bulwarks and resources of civilization, 
which ought to be not only preserved, but reinforced. 

Cambridge, 4 May, 191 7. 



The Intellectual 
Inspiration of Paris' 

That delightful American humanist, George Ticknor, 
whose Spanish library is one of the literary treasures of 
Boston, has given us in his Life and Letters an admirable 
picture of the University of Gottingen a century ago. 
The University of Berlin had just been founded, and the 
characteristics that were to mark this essentially modern 
German city were as yet unknown. Goethe still reigned 
at Weimar, and the academic calm of the university 
towns was a fit environment for the study and investi- 
gation that made them famous. Still wrapped in an 
atmosphere of classicism, they were about to feel the 
quickening spirit of the physical sciences, and to embark 
upon that rapid advance which has brought wealth 
and prosperity to modern Germany. Yet Humboldt, the 
cosmopolite, who epitomized the nascent science of his 
native land, still lingered among the brilliant leaders of 
the Paris Academy, although yielding at length, with the 
deepest reluctance, to the royal command to share the 
king's table at Potsdam. 

Ever since that day of high ideals, when Goethe and 
Schiller talked in the quiet gardens of Jena or crossed 
the Alps to joint the literary colony of Rome, the uni- 
versities of Germany have drawn to their hospitable 
halls the students of the United States. To these 

i[By George Ellery Hale, Foreign Secretary of the National 
Academy of Sciences, Correspondent of the Institute of France. — ^Ed.] 



6 INTRODUCTION 

institutions we owe much of the regard for scholarship 
and much of the spirit of research that now characterize 
our own universities. Wolcott Gibbs at Harvard, in 
1863, and Oilman at Johns Hopkins, in 1876, definitely 
fixed in our advanced courses the laboratory methods 
they had learned in Germany. Since their time, in a 
rapidly widening circle of universities, research leading 
to the doctor's degree has become universal, greatly to 
the advantage of American science. No faculty member, 
if perchance half-hearted in his desire for new knowledge, 
can afford to ignore completely the growing custom of 
original research. To be most successful as a teacher 
he must be counted among those who realize that in- 
spiration springs from advancing knowledge — not from 
the sealed books of the Aristotelian, whose pedantic 
vision, which paralyzed progress in the past, would be 
no less deadly at the present day if the spirit of research 
were destroyed. 

The influence of the German university on American 
education has thus been of incalculable value. It has 
taught the student to look beyond the bachelor's degree 
to the possibility of advancing knowledge by his own 
efforts, and to realize the high privilege of never-ceasing 
research. It has also taught him the advantage of foreign 
travel and experience, needed so imperiously in the midst 
of our slowly decreasing insularity. But, in working so 
much of good, it has almost inevitably involved an ele- 
ment of harm, by centering our educational ideals too ex- 
clusively in a single country. The time has surely come 
to look farther afield. And in widening our vision, the 
great debt we already owe to the ficole des Beaux Arts is 
an ample assurance of the rich benefits we may reason- 
ably hope to derive from the other schools of France. 

When Ticknor sailed from Boston in 1815, the Paris 
Academy of Sciences was near the zenith of its fame. 



INTRODUCTION 7 

Never in the history of Europe had so brilliant a company 
of scientific men concentrated in one spot the superb 
productions of their genius.^ Alexander von Himiboldt, 
contrasting Paris and BerHn at a later period, charac- 
terized the latter as '*an intellectual desert, an insig- 
nificant city devoid of literary culture." Goethe, too, 
longed for the intellectual joys of Paris. Writing to 
Eckermann in 1827, he said: 

*' Truth to say, we all lead a miserably isolated existence. 
We meet with but Httle sympathy from the comLmon herd 
around us, and our men of genius are scattered over Germany. 
One is at Vienna, another at Berlin, a third at Konigsberg, a 
fourth at Bonn or Dtisseldorf — all separated by some hun- 
dreds of miles, so that personal intercourse and a viva voce 
interchange of thought is a matter of rare occurrence. I am 
vividly impressed with the keen enjoyment this would yield 
when I am in the company of men like Alexander von Hum- 
boldt, who in one day carry me farther toward all I am seeking 
and yearning to know than I could attain during years of 
solitary study. 

*'Only imagine, however, a city like Paris, where the clever- 
est heads of a great kingdom are grouped together in one spot, 
and in daily intercourse incite and stimulate each other by 
mutual emulation; where all that is of most value in the king- 
doms of nature and art, from every part of the world, is daily 
open to inspection; and all this in a city where every bridge 
and square is associated with some great event of the past, 
and where every street-corner has a page of history to unfold. 
And withal not the Paris of a dull and stupid age, but the 
Paris of the nineteenth century, where for three generations 
such men as Moliere, Voltaire, and Diderot have brought into 
play a mass of intellectual power such as can never be met 
with a second time on any single spot in the whole world." 

It would be easy to fill this book with distinguished 
eulogies of French culture, of the clearness and pre- 

^See the present writer's "National Academies and the Progress of 
Research," Science, November 14, 1913. 



8 INTRODUCTION 

cision of French thought and expression, of the optimism 
and charm of French life, — quahties that still remain 
the dominant characteristics of the civilization of France. 

The intellectual growth that reached its finest flower 
in the days of the First Empire was deeply rooted in a 
scholarly past. Under the sheltering walls of Notre 
Dame a colony of students rose into view in the twelfth 
century, and soon outgrew the confines of the Island 
of the City. Within a few decades the University of 
Paris had assumed definite form in its present locality, 
and its fame drew students from all quarters of the 
civilized world. The provinces were not without their 
schools of higher education, some of which attained 
great distinction. But the concentration that has both 
helped and hindered France focused in Paris the intel- 
lectual life of the nation. Favored by the Court, sharing 
the prestige which made and maintains the French 
language as the medium of diplomacy, and fostered by 
the world's approval, the higher spirit of France grew 
apace. Never in the world's history, excepting the single 
case of Alexandria, has one city sheltered so much of a 
nation's intellectual greatness. Woven for centuries into 
the fabric of the national life, it still finds expression in that 
high civilization which is so universally admired. And its 
appreciation by the State, generally withheld in other 
lands, is visibly demonstrated to every visitor to Paris. 

If you would feel the inspiration of a great nation's 
centuries of thought and brilliant expression, go to the 
Luxembourg Gardens on a bright summer's afternoon. 
From this center you may set out to observe, as in no 
other region of the world, the widely recorded evidences 
of intellectual progress. 

We are in the midst of the greatest of all wars, and 
the roar of the heavy guns at Verdun and on the Somme 
is almost audible. The nation has been stripped of 



INTRODUCTION 9 

able-bodied men to defend its frontier, and the crowd 
that still returns to these pleasant gardens, to rest 
among beds of flowers and pools of water, is made sombre 
by the ever-present marks of mourning. Yet the chil- 
dren, who must carry on the great traditions of France 
after the war has ended, mercifully spared the depression 
which their elders so bravely conceal, sail their boats 
across the pond as in happier days. A string orchestra, 
with many women now among its musicians, draws a 
group about it beneath the trees. In spite of the war 
the old life of Paris still goes on. 

Encircling the pool, and stretching away on all sides, 
the busts and statues of eminent men look out of the 
past. Even the Hght reflected from the windows of the 
palace tells of great discoveries. For on a winter's day 
in 1808, while looking at one of these windows through 
a piece of Iceland spar, Malus detected for the first time 
that remarkable property of Hght — its polarization by 
reflection — which aided greatly in the establishment of 
the wave theory by Fresnel. 

To our left rises the great dome of the Pantheon, 
inscribed " Aux grands hommes la patrie reconnaissante," 
enshrining the tombs of Hugo, Lagrange, and Bougain- 
ville, and testifying, in the mural decorations of Puvis 
de Chavannes and in Rodin's "Le Penseur," to the 
perennial flow of French genius. Here, in 185 1, Foucault 
suspended from the lantern of the dome an immense 
pendulum which, swinging in an unchanging plane as 
the floor turned beneath it, made visible the rotation 
of the earth. Close at hand stands the Bibliotheque de 
Sainte-Genevieve, with its rich collection of manuscripts 
and early printed books; flanked by the ficole de Droit, 
fronting on the broad Rue Soufflot. Book shops are 
everywhere, devoted to law or to medicine, to history, 
art or science, to theology or belles-lettres. On all sides 



lo INTRODUCTION 

the achievements of French civiHzation are honored or 
offered for public service. 

Beyond the pond, the garden extends toward the south 
in the long rectangle of the Avenue de FObservatoire. 
Crossing the Rue Auguste Comte, we leave the children's 
area behind, and watch the vista down the long rows of 
clipped horse-chestnuts. In May they are superb in 
their white wealth of blossoms, and now in early Sep- 
tember, though their leaves are rusting, the effect of 
skilful massing is still retained. Beyond the Rue Herschell 
and the Rue Cassini rises the great stone structure of the 
Observatory, the domes at its two extremities coaxial 
with the alleys of trees. Built under Louis XIV by 
Claude Perrault, physician and architect, its lofty 
facade speaks eloquently of the enlightened appreciation 
of pure science which France has always shown. Here, 
during its early years, was housed the Academy of 
Sciences, and Leclerc has recorded for us in one of his 
engravings a visit of Louis XIV to the members assembled 
in the Observatory. 

Four generations of the house of Cassini succeeded to 
the directorate of the Observatory, first held in 167 1 by 
Giovanni Domenico Cassini, discoverer of the four 
Saturnian satellites and of the weU-known division in 
Saturn's ring. Among their successors were Arago, the 
brilliant Perpetual Secretary of the Paris Academy of 
Sciences, and Le Verrier, Senator of France, whose immor- 
tal researches on the irregular motions of Uranus led 
in 1846 to the discovery of Neptune. The statue of 
Le Verrier before the Observatory, and that of Arago in 
the Boulevard Arago, were erected by national sub- 
scription. 

The same fine sense of fitness which has given the 
streets about the Observatory the names of great astron- 
omers is repeatedly illustrated in adjoining regions of 



INTRODUCTION ii 

Paris. The broad area of the Jardin des Plantes, extend- 
ing to the Seine, is bounded by the Rue Cuvier, the 
Rue de Buffon (named for the first director of the 
Garden), and the Rue Geoffroy St.-Hilaire. The vast 
menagerie, gardens, and exhibits, including the herbaria 
of Lamarck and Alexander von Humboldt and Cuvier's 
celebrated collection of comparative anatomy, together 
with the statues of many eminent men of science, 
are not the only attractions of this home of the natu- 
ralist. Here in a small laboratory, where their original 
instruments may still be seen, four generations of the 
family of Becquerel have carried on their classic inves- 
tigations. Most significant of these is the discovery 
by Henri Becquerel, in 1896, of the invisible radia- 
tions of uranium, the starting point of research in radio- 
activity. 

Were we to attempt to mention here even a tithe of the 
laboratories, the schools, the great names, or the funda- 
mental contributions to knowledge, which press for 
recognition in all points of the Latin Quarter, these intro- 
ductory pages would be multiplied beyond the reader's 
patience. But as we pass from the Jardin des Plantes 
through the Rue de Jussieu or the Rue Linne toward 
the core of France's scholastic heart, our gaze is often 
diverted. Across the Place Monge rises the Ecole Poly- 
technique, flanked by the Rue Descartes and the Rue 
Laplace. Farther on we reach the College de France and 
the great pile of the Sorbonne. The statue of Claude 
Bernard before the College must appeal to every scholar; 
for his "Introduction a Tetude de la medecine experimen- 
tale,'' unfortunately veiled from workers in other fields 
by its medical title, is one of the classics of science. 
Here, in the crystaUine clearness of perfect French, 
devoid, in large part, of professional details, the general 
principles of scientific research are superbly presented. 



12 INTRODUCTIOlSr 

No investigator unfamiliar with this great work should 
leave it long unread. 

If we elect to enter the Place de la Sorbonne through 
the Rue ChampoUion, a fascinating chapter in the 
history of science will rise before us. For the erudition 
of Germany in the field of Egyptology all goes back to 
the achievements of ChampoUion, first to decipher the 
royal cartouches on an obelisk and to read the trilingual 
inscription of the Rosetta Stone. Napoleon (who in- 
variably signed himself while in Egypt "Membre de 
rinstitut, General en Chef") had paved the way for 
ChampoUion by taking to Cairo a brilliant company of 
men of science, who recorded in the great "Description 
de I'Egypte'' the inscriptions of the Nile, while a French 
officer had found the Stone itself at the Rosetta mouth. 
Since these distinguished beginnings, the stirring tradi- 
tions of French archaeology have been ably maintained 
by Mariette, Maspero, and their colleagues, both in 
Egypt and in France. 

The Church of the Sorbonne affords a fitting entrance 
to the Sorbonne itself. The marble figure of Richelieu, 
beneath his cardinal's hat suspended from the ceiling, 
marks the tomb of the founder of the Academie Fran- 
faise and the builder of the Sorbonne. His private 
library, with many other valuable collections of early 
books and manuscripts, is still preserved; while the 
stimulus he gave to letters by his creation of the French 
Academy was soon emphasized in other fields by 
Colbert, under whom the Academie des Sciences, the 
Academie des Beaux Arts, and the French Academy at 
Rome were established. Colbert even conceived the 
plan of the Institute of France, but the Institute itself 
did not come into existence untU after the Revolution. 

The great amphitheater of the Sorbonne, with its 
superb mural paintings and its statues of Robert de 



INTRODUCTION 13 

Sorbon (founder of the original hostel for poor students), 
Richelieu, Descartes, Pascal, RoUin, and Lavoisier, is 
the chief place for university functions. These six figures 
epitomize the many-sided achievements of French intel- 
lectual progress. Even Pascal alone embodies an excep- 
tional range of activity; we find him again represented at 
the base of the Tour St. Jacques, which he is said to 
have ascended to repeat his experiments proving the 
decrease in the pressure of the atmosphere with increasing 
elevation. Each of these tempting names, which might 
furnish a text for long discourse, must be passed by in 
favor of one more recent, which for the student repre- 
sents most truly the spirit of modern France. 

Memories of Louis Pasteur are best recalled in the 
regions associated with his life and work. The broad 
Avenue de Breteuil, coaxial with the Hotel des In- 
valides, extends from the Tomb of Napoleon to the 
Boulevard Pasteur. At the center of the Place Breteuil 
stands the monument erected by France in Pasteur's 
honor. When it is remembered that by popular vote 
Pasteur was declared the greatest of Frenchmen, the 
national significance of this monument will be appre- 
ciated. 

Pasteur's later work was done in the Institut Pasteur, 
which stands in the Rue Dutot, not far from the Boule- 
vard Pasteur. Here also is his tomb. But the reader of 
his biography by Vallery-Radot — a book to which 
every young investigator, in whatever field of science, 
should go for inspiration and guidance — will remember 
with keenest pleasure those simple beginnings when 
Pasteur, an obscure student from the little village of 
Dole, embarked upon his career of discovery. He 
was studying the crystals of racemic acid, intent only 
on the advancement of knowledge, and with no thought 
of practical ends, when he noticed a curious dissyrometry, 



14 INTRODUCTION 

which had escaped even such skilled investigators as 
Mitscherlich and La Provostaye. Two crystals of pre- 
cisely the same chemical composition were seen to be 
identical also in form, except in one respect: although 
the interfacial angles were the same, the two could not 
be superposed — the small facets were inclined in some 
cases to the right, and in others to the left. Carefully 
separated into two heaps and then dissolved, the two 
types of crystals in solution, though chemically iden- 
tical, produced opposite effects on a beam of polarized 
light — one rotating it to the right, the other to the left. 
Mixed in equal parts, they caused no rotation. 

This discovery, to the lay mind so valueless, excited 
Pasteur beyond measure. He rushed from the laboratory, 
and in the long alleys of the Luxembourg Gardens 
unfolded his vision of its consequences to his friend 
Chappuis. The constitution of racemic acid, formerly 
so mysterious, had been found; a new class of isomeric 
substances had been discovered; the phenomenon of 
rotatory polarization and the properties of crystals had 
been illuminated: in short, a new and unforeseen route 
had been opened in science. Biot, when Pasteur repeated 
the experiment for him, exclaimed: "Mon cher enfant, 
j'ai tant aime les sciences dans ma vie que cela me fait 
battre le cceur!" 

Beautiful as this discovery appeared to the veteran 
Biot, it was still more marvelous in its possibilities to 
Pasteur himself. For his powerful imagination carried 
him far beyond its immediate applications in chemistry 
and physics toward the still greater consequences that 
he already half divined. Eager to pursue the new path, 
he followed up his work. How is racemic acid produced? 
With the aid of Mitscherlich, Pasteur set out in hot 
haste for the chemical factories of Germany, Austria, and 
Bohemia. Everywhere he found traces of the acid 



INTRODUCTION . 15 

in tartrates. Returning to Paris, he succeeded in pro- 
ducing racemic acid experimentally, and incidentally 
won the Chevalier's ribbon of the Legion of Honor. 

Twenty years later, as a direct consequence of these 
experiments on crystalline dissymmetry, arose the new 
science of stereochemistry, which tells us of the arrange- 
ment in space of the atoms constituting a molecule. 
But far more important, Pasteur's studies of racemic 
acid showed him that while one class of crystals would 
ferment, the others remained inert in the Hquid. Why 
should this be? Because, he replied, "Les ferments de 
cette fermentation se nourrissent plus facilement des 
molecules droites que des molecules gauches." But 
what, then, is fermentation, that strange process regarded 
by Liebig and others as a purely chemical phenomenon? 
The answer was immediately given by Pasteur, who 
showed it to be due to the presence of hosts of bacteria, 
which eagerly devoured one class of crystals and ignored 
the others. 

Here was the beginning of that great study of putre- 
factive changes, and of the part played by bacteria in 
disease, which made the world Pasteur's debtor. 
Modern surgery, the cure of rabies, the germ theory of 
infection, — aU go back to those simple experiments 
in pure science that laid the foundation of his career. 
What a privilege for the student to follow in his foot- 
steps, to feel the stimulus of his example, to realize in 
some measure that high sense of devotion to truth, 
of obligation to humanity, best typified in Louis Pasteur ! 

But the fascination of Pasteur has tempted us far 
afield. Here in the Luxembourg Gardens, to which 
his talks with Chappuis have brought us back, we may 
well pause to reflect on the demands that the American 
student may fairly make on the country he elects for 



i6 INTRODUCTION 

university work. Paris, as Goethe and Humboldt 
declared, and as those who are acquainted with French 
scholars today will heartily reiterate, is full of intel- 
lectual opportunity and charm. The admirable courses 
of instruction offered in every department of knowledge 
are fully set forth in the present volume. If in 
some fields there is room for improvement of the facili- 
ties now available for research, we have the strongest 
assurances that these will be rapidly augmented. Thus, 
from the intellectual standpoint, the scholastic attrac- 
tions of Paris should leave nothing to be desired. 

But may not the student ask for more? May he not 
hope to find, in the country he visits for graduate study, 
the inspiring quaHties of an advanced civilization, the 
high ideals of a nation devoted to progress in the finest 
sense? Let us test France from this viewpoint. 

Glance at the past, and realize how deep-rooted is 
her culture. The courtliness and taste of the old 
regime, its refinements in art, the elegance of its litera- 
ture, the lasting contributions to civiHzation made by 
its greater statesmen, still find expression in the life 
and institutions of Paris. And this rich heritage stands 
free from the defects of an earlier social structure and the 
aggressive ambitions of imperial days. France, fortu- 
nate among nations, has conserved the good and rejected 
the evil experienced in her national progress. The 
dark passions of the Revolution have utterly disappeared, 
giving place to the spirit of liberty, equahty, fraternity, 
truly expressed in the national life, and uniting France 
and the United States by unbreakable bonds. 

But the present, not the past, must determine the 
student's choice. Here he will not hesitate, for France 
stands, as all the world knows, at the highest level of 
her moral attainment. The baseless charge of deca- 
dence, the ignorant depreciation based on an imperfect 



INTRODUCTION 17 

knowledge of the French people and an inability to per- 
ceive their deeper qualities — aU this, occasionally heard 
in the past, has been forever silenced by the War, re- 
veaHng a devotion to the State, a quiet but unyielding 
persistence in the defense of national ideals, which no 
opponent can overcome. The inspiring vision of war- 
swept France, indomitable in the face of sudden invasion, 
will draw to her universities in the coming days of peace 
many a student who would taste for himself the quali- 
ties he has admired and envied from the comfortable 
security of the United States. 
Paris, September, 1916. 



Anthropology 



Anthropology' 

The history of Anthropology, with its four subdivi- 
sions of Physical Anthropology, Prehistoric Archaeology, 
Ethnology, and Ethnography, can be traced in France 
perhaps better than in any other country of the world. 

Physical Anthropology. This statement is especially 
true of Physical Anthropology. It was a French traveller, 
Berneer (1625-1688) who first attempted to distinguish 
the races of mankind; this preceded the classification of 
Linnaeus by over fifty years. Buffon (i 707-1 788) 
was one of the first to insist that man was a single species. 
The "Transformism" of Lamarck (1744-1829) was the 
first coherent theory of evolution. This hypothesis 
was supported by Saint-Hilaire (i 772-1844), and 
attacked by Cuvier (i 769-1832), who put forward 
"the catastrophic theory" as his solution of the ques- 
tion of the history of the animal world. Hair as the 
most perfect of the criteria of race was recognized as 
early as 1827 by Saint-Vincent and in 1858 by Saint- 
Hilaire. But it was not until 1863, when Pruner 
Bey read his classic memoir before the Societe d'Anthro- 
pologie, that the importance of this criterion for a classi- 
fication of the races of man was fully realized. 

Alfred Haddon^ has called Broca, Topinard, and 
de Quatrefages the "Systematisers" of Anthropol- 
ogy. Broca (i 824-1 880), the greatest of all physical 

^ [Drafting Committee: C. H. Hawes, Dartmouth College; A. M. 
TozzER, Harvard University. — Ed.] 

^ A History of Anthropology," N. Y., 1910. 

21 



22 ANTHROPOLOGY 

anthropologists, was the prime mover in the establish- 
ment of the Societe d'Anthropologie de Paris in 1859 
and of the Ecole d'Anthropologie in 1876. His pioneer 
work on craniology led to his invention of numerous im- 
portant instruments for this study. His work on the 
hybridization of the human species was the first study 
to be made of race-mixture. Topinard made valuable 
investigations on the living population of France, and 
his work " L' Anthropologie " (1876) has remained the 
standard text-book almost up to the present time. The 
third of the "Systematisers'' was de Quatrefages 
(1810-1892), professor of Anthropology in the Museum 
d'Histoire Naturelle of Paris. He was an early champion 
of the much derided claim of man's great antiquity 
upon this earth. His book "L'Espece humaine^' (1877) 
was one of the first to take into account the importance 
of fossil forms of man. 

A list of other French physical anthropologists and their 
interests should include Deniker and his "Races et 
peuples de la terre" (1900); Hamy; Collignon, in pig- 
mentation and anthropometrical surveys; Quetelet, a 
pioneer of the biometric method; Verneau and his work 
on the Grimaldi and Cro-Magnon "races"; Boule on 
the bones from La Chapelle-aux-Saints; and Manouvrier. 
Mention should be made here of the work of Bertillon 
on the identification of criminals. 

Prehistoric Archaeology. In the field of prehistoric 
archaeology, France has played the leading part. This 
is due to some extent to the rich field for archaeology 
to be found in France. It is significant that the current 
modern name of each of the periods of the palaeolithic 
culture in Europe is a French name associated with a 
site where typical forms of stone implements were found. 
The name of Boucher de Perthes stands out in this 




ANTHROPOLOGY 



ANTHROPOLOGY 23 

field of prehistoric archaeology. His discoveries at 
Abbeville, in 1825, of the bones of extinct animals asso- 
ciated with flint implements led him to champion the 
cause of early man in France. It was not until 1859 
that these finds were completely substantiated by the 
investigations of the English archaeologists, Prestwich, 
Lyell, and Sir John Evans. The importance of this 
validation cannot be over-estimated in the history of 
prehistoric archaeology. Courmant (who may be called 
the successor of Boucher de Perthes) and d'Acy have 
worked in the river-drift deposits. 

We come next to the great period of cave man in the 
famous Dordogne district. Beginning with the classical 
discoveries at Les Eyzies by Lartet and his English 
companion, Christy, we have a long series of names, 
including the father of prehistoric archaeology, Gabriel 
DE MoRTiLLET, and his son, Adrian de Mortillet, 
Massenat, Girod, and later the investigations, largely 
undertaken in concert, by I'Abbe Breuil, Capitan, 
BouLE, Verneau, and Peyrony. The Menton caves 
have been described by Abbo, Riviere, and Cartailhac. 
Mention should also be made of the work of Arcelin 
at Solutre, Martin at La Quina, and Chauvet near 
Angouleme. Piette stands out alone for his researches 
in the Pyrenees on the "painted pebbles'' and the sculp- 
tures, and for his establishment of the genuineness of 
the palaeolithic cave paintings and etchings. The sub- 
ventions of the Prince of Monaco made possible extensive 
recent excavations, the results of which are under the 
care of TAbbe Laville in the Musee Oceanographique 
at Monaco. 

As Boucher de Perthes was the vindicator of Quater- 
nary man in France, TAbbe Bourgeois stands as the 
champion of Tertiary man. The battle over the Eolithic 
question has been a warm one, and its center has been 



24 ANTHROPOLOGY 

in France. Desnoyers in 1863 ^.t Saint-Prest, TAbbe 
Bourgeois in 1867 at Thenay, and Rames in 1877 at 
Puy-Courny, are some of the protagonists. In spite 
of the efforts of the Belgian, Rutot, to assume the onus 
of an affirmative solution, French scholars, led by Boule, 
have, as a whole, refused to accept this answer. 

The investigations in Neolithic France have been 
made by Chatellier in Brittany (1807) with his 
museum at Kernuz; Bonstetten, Cusset, Baye, TAbbe 
Hermet, in the dolmens, and Bertrand at Carnac. 
Guebhard, Vire, Baudouin, and Jacquot, are a few 
of the others interested in the prehistoric monuments 
of France. 

The Age of Bronze was first investigated in France 
by Chantre (1876) in the Rhone Basin. Coutil is 
another name to note in this horizon. Dechelette, 
Bertrand, Corot, and Piroutet, are the names of 
some of those associated with investigations in the 
Iron Age. 

It is impossible to speak of the large mass of literature 
on prehistoric France. Special mention should, however, 
be made of G. de Mortillet's "Le Prehistorique" 
(1883), Edmond's "Musee Osteologique " (1907), S. 
Reinach's "Repertoire de TArt Quaternaire'' (1913), 
and Dechelette 's monumental work " Manuel d' Arche- 
ologie prehistorique" (3 vols. 1898-19 12). 

American Archaeology. It is perhaps significant of 
the wide interest taken in the subject of prehistoric 
archaeology by France to note that American archaeology 
has by no means been neglected. The only complete 
treatise on American archaeology is that of the late 
M. Beuchat, "Manuel d'Archeologie americaine" 
(1912). Nadaillac has also written two books dealing 
with America. Middle American archaeology, and 



ANTHROPOLOGY 25 

especially the hieroglyphic writing, have been investi- 
gated by many French scientists. Among these are 
Brasseur de Bourbourg, Charency, Hamy, de Rosny, 
PiNART, and Lejeal. Several French explorers have 
made extensive investigations in Central America. 
Waldeck, Charnay, and the Comte de Perigny are 
among this number. The most famous of all American- 
ists is the Due de Loueat, who has established professor- 
ships in Mexican Archaeology at the College de France, 
at the University of BerHn, and at Columbia University. 
His masterly reproductions of many of the pre-Colum- 
bian and post-Columbian manuscripts have made these 
valuable documents available to students. 

Ethnology and Ethnography, The investigations in 
these subjects started with the noble work of the 
Jesuit missionaries in Canada, South America, and Asia. 
Among other investigators in this side of anthropology 
are Buffon; de Quatrefages on the Pygmies; Bou- 
gainville and d'Entrecasteaux in the Padfic; de 
Brazza, who opened up the French Congo; Duvegrier 
and ScHiRMER, in the Central Sahara; Sogonzac, in 
Morocco; Tilho, at Lake Chad; and d'Orbiny, in 
South America. 

Sociology. Comte (1798-1857) was the founder of 
the modern science of Sociology. There is an illustrious 
list of French scholars interested in problems of Social 
Anthropology: Giraud-Teulon; Letourneau on 
primitive marriage; Durkkeim, Hubert, and Mauss, 
who have made "L'Annee sociologique" famous; and 
Tarde. 

Linguistics, All students of primitive languages are 
under obligations to Rousselot for the invention of 
the Kymograph for recording sounds graphically. It 
is possible to speak of a few only of the French students 



26 ANTHROPOLOGY 

of primitive languages; Rene Basset, for his work on 
Hametic languages, and Faidherbe, Masqueray, and 
MoTYLYNSKY on Berber, should be mentioned. 

Instruction. Anthropological instruction is offered at 
the College de France under Capitan, who gives courses 
on Mexican archaeology; at the Museum d'Histoire 
Naturelle, under Verneau, on the prehistoric races of 
Europe; at the ficole Pratique des Hautes fitudes a la 
Sorbonne, under Manouvrier, on physical anthropology, 
and under Raynaud, on the rehgions of pre-Columbian 
America; and at the ficole d'Anthropologie, under A. de 
MoRTiLLET on ethnography, Mahoudeau on zoological 
anthropology, Papillault on sociology, Vinson on linguis- 
tics, Herve on ethnology, Capitan, and Manouvrier. 

Mention should be made also of the Oriental schools 
at Cairo, in Egypt; at Saigon, in Cochin China, and in 
Cambodia. 

Field work in prehistoric archaeology is available, as 
in no other place in the world, in the river-drift and cave 
deposits of France. French investigators in this field 
have always shown a cordiality and welcome to foreign 
investigators. In taking into account the opportunities 
for work in prehistoric archaeology, it should be noted 
that, whereas formal instruction is seldom offered any- 
where except in Paris, the extensive work of the scientific 
societies, which will be discussed later, is available to 
all properly accredited students. 

Museums. France has more archaeological and an- 
thropological museums than any other country in the 
world. In addition to the famous Musee des Antiquites 
Nationales, at Saint-Germain, there is the Musee 
d'Ethnographie, at the Palais du Trocadero; the Museum 
d'Histoire Naturelle; the department of Archeologie 
Celtique et Gauloise, at the Louvre; and the Musee de 



ANTHROPOLOGY 27 

rficole d^Anthropologie. There are no less than ninety 
archaeological museums in France, not to mention those 
in the French possessions. 

Scientific Societies. France has the honor of having 
the oldest anthropological society, the Societe des 
Observateurs de THomme, established in Paris in 1800. 
This was succeeded by the Societe ethnologique de 
Paris in 1839. There followed the Societe d'Anthropo- 
logie in 1859, the Societe d'Ethnographie in the same year, 
the Societe americaine de France, the Societe prehis- 
torique, the Congres prehistorique de France, and the 
Commission d'Etude des enceintes prehistoriques et forti- 
fications antehistoriques, and the Institut international 
d'Ethnographie et de Sociologie. All these societies 
have valuable series of publications. 

Mention should also be made of the inauguration at 
Nancy in 1875 of the Congres international des Ameri- 
canistes, which has had a long and prosperous history. 
There should also be noted the anthropological societies 
of Lyon and Bordeaux, together with no less than forty 
associations for anthropological or archaeological research 
scattered through France. 

Scientific Publications. In addition to the publication 
of Bulletins and Memoirs by many of the preceding 
societies, there are a large number of scientific publications 
devoted to anthropology. Among these are the "Revue 
anthropologique,'' a continuation of the "Revue d'Ecole 
d 'Anthropologic" ; "T Anthropologic," one of the fore- 
most anthropological publications in the world; 
"L 'Homme"; "Materiaux pour FHistoire primitive et 
naturelle de Thomme"; "Revue d'Ethnographie"; 
"L'Ethnographie"; "L 'Homme prehistorique"; "Revue 
des Etudes prehistoriques" ; "Prehistorique de France"; 
and "Bulletin de la Commission archeologique de 
rindochine." 



28 ANTHROPOLOGY 

Libraries. The libraries of the various institutions 
mentioned have large collections of anthropological 
material. The Bibliotheque de la Societe des Antiquaires 
de France, at the Louvre, specializes in archaeology; 
and the BibHotheque Nationale has probably the largest 
collection of original Mexican manuscripts of any in- 
stitution in the world. 



Archaeology 

AND 

HISTORY OF ART 



Archaeology 

AND 

HISTORY OF ART^ 

In the development of Archaeology from a "handmaid 
of Philology" into a definite science, with its own tradi- 
tions and methods of procedure (which is one of the most 
characteristic achievements of the nineteenth century), 
French scholars have played an important part. 

Champollion's discovery of the key to the Egyptian 
hieroglyphic writing ranks first, perhaps, in the record 
of their achievements; but his is only one among many 
prominent names. In the same field of Eg3^tology, 
Mariette will always be remembered as the discoverer 
of the tombs of the Apis bulls and of many other monu- 
ments, and as the organizer of the great museum in 
Cairo. And the rapid advance in knowledge of ancient 
Egypt in recent years is very largely due to Maspero, 
the learned and broad-minded Director General of the 
Department of Antiquities under the Egyptian govern- 
ment for many years before his death in June, 1 9 1 6. The 
exploration of the Syrian region and the study of Semitic 
epigraphy and archaeology owe much to Renan, though 
his great fame rests on his "Life of Jesus'' and other 
works not strictly archaeological in character. In the fasci- 
nating story of research in Babylonia and Assyria, the work 
of BoTTA and Place in exploring the palace of Sargon at 
Khorsabad (the first of the great palaces of this region to 

^ [Drafting Committee: George H. Chase, Harvard University; 
Harold N. Fowler, Western Reserve University; A. L. Frothingham, 
Princeton University; J. R. Wheeler, Columbia University. — Ed.] 

31 



32 ARCHAEOLOGY 

be excavated), and that of Dieulapoy and Sarzec in 
the mound of Tello, occupy a prominent place; and the 
recent excavations of Morgan at Susa and PersepoHs 
have brought to light a mass of important material for 
the early history of the Orient. Oppert, Heuzey, and 
Menant have led in elucidating this new material. 

In the development of classical archaeology, also, 
the part played by French scholars is noteworthy, espe- 
cially in the exploration of Greek lands. Even before 
the establishment of the modern kingdom of Greece, 
the Expedition scientifique de Moree in 1829 and 1830, 
under the leadership of Blouet, collected materials for 
an elaborate publication devoted to the ancient ruins in 
the Peloponnesus, then very imperfectly known; and the 
explorations of Texier in Asia Minor in 1833-37 per- 
formed a similar service for the monuments of that region 
and supplemented the earlier work of English travelers. 

New stimulus to such researches was given by the 
establishment, in 1847, ^^ the ficole frangaise d'Athenes, 
the first of the "foreign" schools in Athens, which 
served as a model for those established later by other 
nations in the capital of Greece. With this school 
most of the French classical archaeologists of the last 
half of the nineteenth century have at some time been 
associated. Members of the School have conducted 
many excavations in Greek lands, the most notable 
of which are those at Myrina (1880-82), at Delos (begun 
in 1873, and still in progress), and at Delphi (1892-97, 
with supplementary work in more recent years). Among 
the famous members of the School who are no longer 
living, mention may be made of Albert Dumont, Director 
in 1875-78, a prolific writer on many aspects of ancient 
art, who in 1873-75 estabhshed the important French 
School of Archaeology in Rome; Olivier Rayet, explorer 
of the great temple of Apollo at Didyma in 1873 ^^^ 



ARCHAEOLOGY 33 

founder of the "Monuments de TArt antique'^ (2 vols., 
1881-83); and Georges Perrot, a critic of unusual 
acumen, joint author (with the architect Chipiez) of the 
comprehensive "Histoire de TArt,'' the tenth volume of 
which was published just before his recent death. Other 
notable scholars in this field were Frangois Lenormant, 
founder of the "Gazette Archeologique" (1875-89), a 
voluminous writer in many fields, who was famous no 
less as an orientalist than as a classical archaeologist, and 
Henri Cohen, whose great "Description historique des 
monnaies frappees sous FEmpire romain'' (2d ed., 
8 vols., 1880-92) is an indispensable book to all workers 
in Roman numismatics. 

The establishment of French rule in Algeria (1830) and 
in Tunis (1881) threw open to French archaeologists two 
most interesting districts, which they have explored with 
great success. A new Pompeii has been laid bare at 
Timgad. Many of the important Roman sites have 
been cleared of debris, museums have been established, 
and knowledge of Roman Africa has been greatly in- 
creased, under the leadership of Gsell, Toutain, 
Gauckler, Saladin, and Cagnat. 

Meanwhile the investigation of the monuments of 
France itself has been eagerly pursued. Local antiquarian 
societies have conducted excavations in many places 
and built up local museums, devoted at first to Gallic 
and Gallo-Roman antiquities, but later, with the growth 
of interest in prehistoric monuments, to relics of earlier 
times as well. In the development of the science of 
"prehistory," a leading place belongs to Gabriel de 
MoRTiLLET, whose well-known "Prehistorique" (first 
published in 1883; 3d ed., 1900) was one of the first 
attempts at a comprehensive treatment of the ages of 
stone, bronze, and iron. The French government set a 
brilliant example to all nations in organizing an ofiicial 



34 ARCHAEOLOGY 

census of all French monuments more systematic and 
complete than any attempted elsewhere. The Com- 
mission des Monuments Historiques has largely directed 
it, as well as the restorations, and has issued volumes of 
folio plates since 1855. The Roman period in Algeria and 
Tunisia has been illustrated by splendid pubHcations, of 
which the monograph on Timgad is the most spectacular. 
In France itself Esperandieu has given a corpus of all 
the Roman sculptures, and Blanchet had described 
the Gallo-Roman cities. Le Blant has collected all the 
early Christian sarcophagi, second in importance only to 
those of Italy. To Verneilh is due the first collective 
study of Byzantine architecture. For the Romanesque 
period, just preceding the Gothic, the field was covered 
in the South by Revoil and in the North by Ruprich- 
RoBERT. The scientific basis for the understanding of 
Gothic art, not only in France, where it originated, but 
everywhere, was laid by Quicherat, and expanded by 
his briUiant successors, De Lasteyrie C^Origines de 
r Architecture gothique" and many other works), and 
Enlart, whose comprehensive "Manuel d'Archeologie 
frangaise" (1902-16), a full history of French art, is the 
authoritative statement of the modern school. 

Almost contemporary with Quicherat, and far more 
popular, was Viollet-le-Duc, whose studies in the 
mediaeval architecture and art of France were published 
in a great series of beautifully written volumes, and who 
had charge of the restoration of many of the greatest 
national monuments; the most familiar of his books is 
his "Dictionnaire raisonne de T Architecture frangaise du 
xi^ au xvi^ siecle'^ (10 vols., 1867-73). Another orig- 
inal teacher was Courajod, whose courses at the ficole 
du Louvre were revolutionary. The most brilliant 
illustrator of the art of the Renaissance in France has 
been Palustre. 




ARCHAEOLOGY 



ARCHAEOLOGY 35 

In the general post-classic field, several French scholars 
have done invaluable work. De Vogue revealed a new 
branch of early Christian architecture in the ruined 
cities of Syria ("La Syrie centrale"); in Byzantine art 
may be noted the work of Schlumberger (with his 
triology of "NicephorePhocas," "L'fipopee byzantine/' 
"Basile II," his numismatic and other studies) and of 
DiEHL ("L'Art byzantin dans I'ltalie meridionale,'' 
"Justinien," "Ravenne," etc.). Dartein was the first 
to make known the architecture of Lombardy, and 
Berteaux has done much for South Italian art in the 
Middle Ages. Muntz is invaluable in correlating the 
art of the Italian Renaissance with its life and its politics. 
In the special field of the scientific history of Architec- 
ture, the greatest modern authority is Choisy, whose 
"Histoire de T Architecture" (1899) is completed by 
large special histories: "L'Art de batir chez les Ro- 
mains," "L'Art de batir chez les Byzantins," and "L'Art 
de batir chez les Egyptiens." 

Aside from the great Annual Congress, which meets 
each year in a different section of France, the two main 
forums for archaeology are the meetings of the Academic 
des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres of the French Institute, 
and the Societe Nationale des Antiquaires de France, 
both of which publish their Compte-rendus and the latter 
its Memoires. 

Instruction at the Universities. As in most other 
matters, so in facilities for the study of archaeology, 
Paris is the center of France. In Paris, naturally, are 
found the richest museums and libraries, and to Paris, 
ultimately, most of the scholars who distinguish them- 
selves are drawn. A mere enumeration of the men who 
are engaged in teaching in the higher institutions of the 
capital is impressive. 



36 ARCHAEOLOGY 

Among the members of the Faculty of the University 
of Paris are: Maxime Collignon, professor of Archae- 
ology, a recognized authority on the history of Greek 
art. His "Histoire de la Sculpture grecque'' (2 vols., 
1892, 1897) is undoubtedly the best history of Greek 
sculpture that has yet been written. His other writings 
include, besides numerous articles and pamphlets, 
"Pergame" (1900), a semi-popular account of the earlier 
excavations at Pergamon, written in collaboration with 
the architect Pontremoli; "Le Parthenon" (1910-12), a 
magnificently illustrated volume on the finest of the 
Greek temples; "Les statues funeraires dans Tart 
grec" (191 1). He lectures regularly on some aspect 
of Greek art, and offers advanced instruction for ad- 
vanced students. Charles Diehl, professor of Byzantine 
History, one of the most learned of modern Byzan- 
tinists. His best known works are his "Etudes byzan- 
tines" (1905); " Figures byzantines" (2 vols., 1906, 1908); 
and "Manuel d'Art byzantin'* (1910). His lectures 
deal with different phases of Byzantine history, always 
with considerable emphasis on the evidence of the monu- 
ments. Maurice Holleaux, Charge de cours in Greek 
Literature and Epigraphy, was Director of the French 
School in Athens from 1904 to 191 2. With his predeces- 
sor (and successor) Theophile Homolle, whose long work 
in Greece has brought great honor to French scholarship, 
he is engaged in editing the official publication of the 
excavations at Delos, "L'Exploration archeologique de 
Delos" (begun in 1909). His lectures and conferences 
usually have to do with Greek history, with special con- 
sideration of the evidence of epigraphy, fimile Male, 
professor of the History of Mediaeval Art, a writer of 
distinction in his special field. Among his works are 
"L'Art religieux de la fin du moyen age en France" 
(1908), and "L'Art religieux du xiii^ siecle en France" 



ARCHAEOLOGY 37 

(3d ed., 1910). His courses deal with different aspects 
of the art of the Middle Ages. 

From the faculty of the College de France, the list of 
names is equally impressive: Ernest Babelon, professor 
of Ancient and Mediaeval Numismatics, is Curator of 
the Department of Medals and Antiquities in the Biblio- 
theque Nationale, and is a recognized authority in his 
particular field. Among his more important writings 
are "Description historique et chronologique des mon- 
naies de la Republique romaine" (2 vols., 1885, 1886); 
"Les origines de la Monnaie'' (1897); "Traite desMon- 
naies grecques et romaines" (5 vols., 1901-10). His 
courses deal with different phases of the development 
of ancient coinage. Rene Cagnat, professor of Roman 
Epigraphy and Archaeology, a scholar whose name is 
closely associated with the exploration of Roman Africa. 
Among his best known works are *' Cours d'Epigraphie 
latine" (3d ed. 1898-1904); "L'Armee romaine 
d'Afrique et TOccupation militaire de TAfrique sous 
les empereurs" (2 vols., 1913); and many articles and 
books having to do with Roman Africa. His courses 
usually deal with Roman monuments and the inter- 
pretation of Latin inscriptions. Charles Clermont- 
Ganneau, professor of Semitic Epigraphy and Archae- 
ology, a scholar deeply versed in the history and the 
monuments of Western Asia, author of "Archaeological 
Researches in Palestine during the years '1873-1874" 
(2 vols., 1896, 1899); "Mission en Palestine et en Phenicie 
entreprise en 1881" (1882); "Recueil d'archeologie 
orientale" (8 vols., 1 888-1 907). He offers every year a 
course in recently discovered Semitic monuments. Paul 
FoucART, professor of Greek Epigraphy and Archaeology, 
author of "Les mysteres d'Eleusis'' (1914). His courses 
commonly deal with Greek inscriptions. Stephane 
GsELL, professor of North African History, who has 



38 ARCHAEOLOGY 

conducted excavations in Italy as well as in his chosen 
province. His works include "Les Monuments antiques 
de TAlgerie'' (2 vols., 1901); "Atlas archeologique de 
TAlgerie'' (191 1); "Histoire ancienne de TAfrique du 
Nord" (vol. I, 1913; to be complete in six volumes). 
His courses in recent years have been devoted to Carthage 
and the Punic wars. The professorship of Egyptology 
was long held by Maspero, by whose recent death the 
Faculty has lost one of its most distinguished members. 
His work in Paris will no doubt be ably continued by 
his successor, when appointed. 

In the Ecole des Hautes Etudes, Section des Sciences 
historiques et philologiques, several courses of interest 
to students of archaeology are offered. Among the 
Directeurs d 'Etudes in the section are: Bernard 
Haussoullier, for Greek Epigraphy and Archaeology, 
well known as one of the investigators of the temple 
at Did3ana (cf. "Didymes: Fouilles de 1895 et de 1896," 
in collaboration with E. Pontremoli, 1904), and as one 
of the authors of the "Recueil des inscriptions juridiques 
grecques" (2 vols., 1891-1904). His courses are devoted 
to the study of Greek history and legal antiquities, with 
reference especially to the evidence of inscriptions and 
the papyri. Antoine Heron de Villefosse, for Latin 
Epigraphy and Roman Archaeology, Curator of Greek and 
Roman Antiquities in the Louvre, author of a "Rapport 
sur une mission archeologique en Algerie" (1875), "Le 
tresor de Bosco Reale " (1899) > ^^^ numerous articles. He 
offers one course in inscriptions relating to the officials 
of the "tres Galliae." In this school, also, Clermont- 
Ganneau offers a course in the antiquities of Palestine, 
Phoenicia, and Syria, and another in Jewish archae- 
ology; some work in Egyptology is given under the 
direction of Paul Guiyesse and Alexandre Moret; and 
studies in Assyrian Philology and Archaeology are in charge 



ARCHAEOLOGY 39 

of the learned Victor Scheil, though his formal courses 
in recent years have been devoted to the interpretation 
of texts and to palaeography rather than to archaeology. 
The Ecole du Louvre, founded in 1882, offers an inter- 
esting three-year program of courses, intended primarily 
to train directors and curators of museums, but open 
to auditors, as well as to regularly enrolled students. 
The subjects covered include the archaeology of France, 
Oriental archaeology and ancient ceramics, Egyptian 
archaeology, Greek and Roman archaeology, Semitic 
antiquities, the history of painting, the history of mediae- 
val. Renaissance, and modern sculpture, the history of 
French art in the 17th and i8th centuries, and the history 
of industrial art in France. The work in Greek and 
Roman archaeology is under the direction of Heron de 
ViLLEFOSSE, who has already been mentioned. The pro- 
fessors for the other subjects are officials of the Louvre and 
other museums, not members of other faculties. Among 
them are: Georges Benedite, Curator of Egyptian An- 
tiquities in the Louvre, author of several works in his 
special field, including two of the scholarly catalogues 
of the Cairo Museum. Leonce Benedite, Curator 
of the Musee National du Luxembourg, a prolific writer 
on modern art, one of the founders of the "Bulletin 
des Musees" and "L 'Album des Peintres lithographes.'' 
Paul Leprieur, Curator of the Department of Paintings 
in the Louvre. Andre Michel, Curator of Mediaeval, 
Renaissance, and Modern Sculpture in the Louvre, best 
known as editor of the comprehensive "Histoire de TArt 
depuis les premiers temps Chretiens jusqu'a nos jours" 
(begun in 1905, and still in course of pubHcation). 
Gaston Migeon, Curator of the Department of the Minor 
Arts of the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, and Modern 
Times in the Louvre, an authority on the art of the 
East as well as that of the West. Pierre de Nolhac, 



40 ARCHAEOLOGY 

Curator of the Musee National de Versailles, editor of 
the "Bibliotheque litteraire de la Renaissance." He 
has written numerous works on Versailles and the famous 
persons associated with it, "Petrarque et Thumanisme,'* 
(2d ed., 2 vols., 1907) and other works relating to the 
Renaissance. Edmond Pottier, Curator of Oriental 
Antiquities and Ancient Ceramics in the Louvre, a 
critic who makes even catalogues interesting; known 
to classical scholars through many attractive books 
and articles on ancient ceramics and terra-cottas, and 
also as the responsible editor of all the later parts of the 
great Daremberg and SagHo "Dictionnaire des Antiquites 
grecques et romaines." Salomon Reinach, Curator of 
the Musee des Antiquites nationales at St.-Germain-en- 
Laye, who is, perhaps, the best known of all the French 
archaeologists, a man of vast erudition and wide inter- 
ests. He has placed archaeologists of all countries 
under lasting obligations to him through the convenient 
books of reference which he has edited, the "Repertoire 
de la statuaire grecque et romaine" (4 vols., 1897-1910); 
"Repertoire des vases peints" (2 vols., 1899, 1900); 
"Repertoire des peintures du moyen age et de la Renais- 
sance" (3 vols., 1905-10); "Repertoire des reliefs grecs 
et romains" (3 vols., 1909-12). The breadth of his 
interests is suggested by this Hst, and even more by the 
titles of some of his other books: "Manuel de Philologie 
classique" (2d ed., 1904); "Cultes, mythes, et religions" 
(4 vols., 1905-12); "Orpheus; Histoire generale des 
Religions" (5th ed., 1905). His "Apollo," a brief but 
scholarly attempt to treat the history of art from 
palaeohthic times to the present day, has been several 
times re-issued and translated into other languages. 
He has been for many years one of the editors of the 
important "Revue archeologique," associated formerly 
with G. Perrot, now with E. Pottier. 



ARCHAEOLOGY 41 

The Ecole Nationale des Beaux Arts, where so many 
of our foremost American architects and artists have 
been taught, has for many years been a proof of the close 
union that might exist in so many other spheres. Its 
teaching is historical as well as technical, and it has 
valuable educational material in casts as well as in original 
works and in reconstructions of ancient monuments. 
Its librarian for many years, Eugene MtJNTZ, was one of 
the earliest, most inspiring and fruitful historians of 
Renaissance art; his masterpiece is the "Histoire de TArt 
pendant la Renaissance" (3 vols., 1889-1891). 

Finally, in the Ecole Nationale des Chartes, intended 
primarily to train archivists and librarians, a course in 
the Archaeology of the Middle Ages is given by Eugene 
Lefevre-Pontalis, joint editor with Robert de Las- 
TEYRiE of the earlier volumes of the "Bibhographie des 
travaux historiques et archeologiques" (1885 on), of 
whose works "L 'Architecture reHgieuse dans Tancien 
diocese de Soissons au xi® et au xii*" siecles'* (2 vols., 1894- 
96) is perhaps the best known. 

Other Universities, Of opportunities for the study 
of archaeology outside of Paris it is impossible to give 
more than a brief account. Most of the fifteen smaller 
universities make some provision for archaeology and 
related subjects, sometimes with reference to special 
conditions; so, in the University of Algiers, instruction 
is given in the antiquities and geography of Africa and 
in Mohammedan civiHzation and the history of the 
Arabs. Work in "archaeology'' is formally provided 
for at Aix; in "archaeology and the history of art," 
at Caen, Dijon, Grenoble, Lyon, and Toulouse. In 
several universities, the professors of the classics offer 
courses in Greek and Roman antiquities. The American 
student will occasionally find himself attracted to a 
particular place by the special attainments of one of 



42 ARCHAEOLOGY 

its professors, but in such a brief account as this it is 
impossible to enter into details. 

Museums. In special facilities for graduate work, 
Paris again is "facile princeps'^ among the cities of 
France. Of its more than forty museums, over twenty 
contain collections which are of interest to the student of 
archaeology and the history of art. First among them 
stands the great Musee du Louvre, with its wealth of 
monuments of sculpture, painting, and the minor arts 
from many regions and periods. Especially important 
are the collections of Greek and Roman sculpture; Egyp- 
tian, Babylonian, and Assyrian antiquities (the stele of 
the Hammurapi Code is here); Greek vases; and Renais- 
sance and modern paintings and sculptures. The Musee 
des Antiquites nationales at St.-Germain-en-Laye con- 
tains the largest collection in the world of antiquities of 
France, covering the prehistoric, GaUic, Gallo-Roman, 
and French periods to the Carolingian epoch. In the 
Trocadero are the Musee de Sculpture comparee, con- 
taining casts of important monuments of many different 
periods; the Musee d'Ethnographie and the Musee 
Indo-Chinois, the character of which is sufficiently in- 
dicated by the names. The Musee de la Bibliotheque 
Nationale contains not only manuscripts, early printed 
books, and prints, but in the Cabinet des Medailles 
it possesses important collections of vases, gems, coins 
and medals. The Musee de Cluny is devoted to the 
art of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance; the Musee 
Guimet to that of the Far East; and there are many 
other special museums and private collections of im- 
portance. Moreover, Paris is one of the great cen- 
ters of the trade in antiquities, and the student will 
constantly find opportunities to acquire a knowledge 
of prices and methods of buying and selHng objects 
of art. 



ARCHAEOLOGY 43 

With several of the smaller universities, museums of 
original materials and reproductions are connected. In 
these museums, many objects of archaeological interest, 
dating from the Old Kingdom in Egypt to modern 
times, are to be found. Special mention may be made 
of the collections at Bordeaux (Greek and Graeco- 
Roman sculpture and vases and monuments of early 
Iberic art); Lille (casts, photographs, and some original 
monuments); Lyon (large collection of casts and photo- 
graphs from Egyptian, Greek, and Graeco-Roman 
monuments) ; Montpellier (casts from ancient sculpture, 
photographs, and prints); and Nancy (casts and some 
original monuments). Interesting collections of local an- 
tiquities, often rich in Roman and Gallic sculpture, are at 
Nimes, Aries, Aix, Langres, Autun, Vienne, and Narbonne. 

Libraries. Among the libraries of Paris, the great 
Bibliotheque Nationale, with its 3,000,000 volumes, is 
especially rich in works on archaeology; and its 110,000 
manuscripts and some 1,000,000 prints offer many 
opportunities for research work along documentary lines. 
There are, besides, several special libraries, where books 
not in the Bibliotheque Nationale can often be found. 
Among these the most important are the Bibliotheque 
d'Art et d ' Archeologie (some 100,000 volumes); the 
Bibliotheque du Musee de Sculpture comparee (about 
2,000 volumes and over 60,000 drawings, prints, and 
photographs); the Bibliotheque de T Association pour 
I'Encouragement des Etudes grecques (about 5,000 
volumes); the Bibliotheque de I'Ecole des Beaux Arts 
(rich in drawings, photographs, and illustrated works); 
and the Bibliotheque de la Societe des Antiquaires de 
France (about 4,000 volumes). 

Periodicals. The "Revue Archeologique'^ covers the 
entire field, with admirable summaries of investigations 



44 ARCHAEOLOGY 

and discoveries everywhere. The "Gazette des Beaux 
Arts" occupies a similar position in the more restricted 
field of art history. The "Bulletin Monumentar' does 
the same, but mainly for France. The most sumptuous 
medium for the pubHcation of important works of historic 
art is supplied by the folios of the "Monuments Piot/^ 
an endowed periodical of the Academic des Inscriptions, 
whose only rival is the "Denkmaler" of the German 
Institute. Prehistoric studies are best represented in 
"L'Anthropologie" and the "Revue de I'ficole d'Anthro- 
pologie." The "Annales du Musee Guimet" make a 
specialty of the Far East; so does the "Bulletin de 
I'Ecole frangaise de rExtreme-Orient." Other Eastern 
spheres are taken care of in the "Revue figyptologique," 
the "Revue d'Assyriologie," the "Revue d' Archeologie 
Orientale,'' the "Revue Semitique" and the '^Memoires" 
of the Mission au Caire. 

Special subjects have their organs also, as the "Revue 
fipigraphique" and "L'Annee fipigraphique''; the 
"Revue de Numismatique," and the "Gazette Numis- 
matique frangaise." Several reviews not strictly archaeo- 
logical have a strong archaeological section, such as the 
"Revue de I'Histoire des Religions." Each of the 
Archaeological Schools has its special review: that at 
Athens, the "Bulletin de Correspondance Hellenique"; 
that at Rome, the "Melanges d'Archeologie et 
d'Histoire." Both are devoted largely to Greek and 
Roman studies, but give a fair share to the Christian 
period. A very special review is the "Revue de I'Art 
Chretien." Devoted to France almost exclusively is 
"L'Ami des Monuments." 



Astronomy 



Astronomy^ 

In all branches of Astronomy — in Geodesy, Observa- 
tional Astronomy, Astrophysics, and Celestial Mechanics 
— France has made noteworthy contributions. In the 
first three named, she has kept abreast of aU progress 
and has often led the way; and in Celestial Mechanics, 
or Mathematical Astronomy, she is well-nigh supreme. 

Her work in Mathematics, in developing methods of 
analysis and lines of attack; and in Physics, in estab- 
Hshing standards of wave-lengths of light, in fact in the 
whole field of radiation; is reflected in the progress of 
Astronomy. It sometimes happens, moreover, that 
noteworthy advances follow achievements in fields quite 
apart from that of the direct research; and as one such 
instance, Guillaume's discovery of invar, in relation to 
the errors, due to temperature effects, which creep into 
all instrumental observations, must be regarded as one of 
the indirect influences promoting advances of prime 
importance. 

Celestial Mechanics, Since the publication of New- 
ton's Principia in 1686, the contributions of all other 
nations combined would scarcely equal in this field the 
contributions of France alone. 

It was Clairaut (17 13-1783) who first pubhshed the 
differential equations of motion for the problem of 
three bodies, and their ten integrals. The formidable 

^[Drafting Committee: Philip Fox, Northwestern University; G. E. 
Hale, Carnegie Institution; F. R. Moulton and W. D. MacMillan, 
University of Chicago; H. N. Russell, Princeton University. — Ed.] 

47 



48 ASTRONOMY 

mathematical difficulties of this problem and the im- 
portance of its solution for Astronomy, particularly for 
an understanding of the motion of the moon, challenged 
the attention and abihties of the mathematicians of the 
entire world. No great mathematician, until very 
recent times, has escaped the charm of this problem. 
From France, however, has come the greater part of our 
present knowledge of a subject which has tested to 
the utmost the strength of the human intellect since the 
time of the immortal Newton. The first two analytical 
theories of the motion of the moon were presented on the 
same day to the Paris Academy by Clairaut and by 
D'Alembert (17 1 7-1 783), and these were the first efforts 
at an analytical solution of the problem of three bodies. 
D'Alembert introduced even the rotation of the earth 
into his theories, and thus developed the theory of the 
precession of the equinoxes. The first rigorous solution 
of the problem of three bodies, due to Lagrange (1736- 
1813), is contained in a paper of great elegance published 
in 1772. Many other theorems of great importance were 
contained in his later papers. In his epochal "Meca- 
nique analytique" he made it his boast that he had freed 
the subject of mechanics from geometrical intuition, and 
brought all of its problems into the domain of pure 
analysis. In striking contrast to the method of 
Lagrange was that of Poisson (i 781-1840), who strove 
to develop the geometrical intuitions to the utmost in 
the solutions of mechanical problems. 

Laplace (1749-18 2 7), however, even more than 
Lagrange, devoted himself to the mechanics of the 
celestial bodies. The theory of the motion of the moon, 
the mutual perturbations of the planets and their satel- 
lites, and the determination of the orbits of comets, 
received masterly treatment in his hands; and no prob- 
lem in this field escaped his critical attention. His 



ASTRONOMY 49 

"Traite de la Mecanique celeste/' in five large volumes, 
will always be one of the great classics in the domain 
of mathematical astronomy. His Nebular Hypothesis 
of the origin of the solar system exercised a profound 
influence upon the fundamental conceptions of almost 
every science during the entire nineteenth century. It 
was the first successful effort in the modern doctrine of 
evolution. 

The theory of the motion of the moon was a highly 
favored subject during the first half of the last century. 
The theory developed by Laplace was carried to a high 
degree of perfection by Damoiseau (i 768-1846). A 
second theory was worked out extensively by De Ponte- 
couLANT (i 795-1874); a third, and by far the most 
perfect theory was developed by Delaunay (1816- 
1872). The theory of Delaunay, which was the result 
of twenty years of constant labor, was pubHshed between 
i860 and 1867. 

A dramatic event about the middle of the nineteenth 
century immortalized the names of Le Verrier (I8II- 
I877) of France and Adams of England. Their mathe- 
matical analysis led these two men independently to 
point to a certain position in the sky and say, ''In that 
direction lies a planet not yet seen by mortal eyes." 
This prediction, verified promptly by the telescope, has 
been justly regarded as one of the great triumphs of 
man's powers of analysis. It was also under Le Verrier's 
directions that the theory of the perturbations of the 
planets was carried to its high state of perfection. 

In the last decade of the last century Tisserand 
(1845-) o^ Paris published his "Traite de la Mecanique 
celeste," which is today the standard work of reference 
in its field. It is complete in its details and embodies 
aU the essential developments in the field of celestial 
mechanics up to the time of Poincare. 



50 ASTRONOMY 

The last name which will be mentioned in this field, 
and perhaps the greatest, is that of Henri Poincare 
(1854-1912). His remarkable work ''Methodes nouvelles 
de la Mecanique celeste,'' furnished a great wealth of new 
ideas, which were developed with the very highest 
mathematical skill. Periodic orbits of various types, 
asymptotically periodic orbits, and integral invariants, 
were the fundamental conceptions which were examined 
with all of the resources of modern mathematics and 
with all of the rigor which modern mathematics demands. 
It is a modest statement to say that with Poincare 
begins a new epoch in celestial mechanics. In addition 
to his contributions to the theory of the motions of the 
celestial bodies should be mentioned his contributions to 
the theory of their figures. It was Clairaut who first 
showed that an oblat^ spheroid is a figure of equiHbrium 
of a slowly rotating fluid mass. Poincare showed that 
besides the ellipsoidal figures already known there 
exists an infinity of other forms corresponding to higher 
rates of rotation. His theorems relating to stable and 
unstable figures of equilibrium are of great importance. 
These investigations find their application not merely in 
the figures of such planets as Jupiter and Saturn but also 
in the question of the origin of binary and multiple stars. 

With such a wealth of noble tradition in the field of 
Celestial Mechanics, it is quite safe to assume that the 
Universities of France, and especially of Paris, will 
always be a source of inspiration to students who may 
be interested in this field. 

Geodesy. The monumental works of the French in 
the pa.st are being paralleled by contemporary contribu- 
tions. This is well illustrated in the geodetic work in 
the recent achievement of the expedition under Bour- 
geois, which has remeasured with the highest precision 

















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ASTRONOMY 



ASTRONOMY 51 

the "arc of Peru/' — that arc which when measured by 
French astronomers in an earHer century afforded the 
first practical proof of the eUipticity of the earth. The 
same scale of achievement is seen in the work of precise 
leveHng conducted by Lallemand and his associates, 
repeating and extending the earlier work of Bouedaloue. 
The French have been very active in developing the 
application of wireless telegraphy in longitude deter- 
minations. This is illustrated by their observations 
between Paris and Poulkovo, Paris and points in Al- 
geria, and culminating in the Paris- Washington campaign 
of 1913. 

Observational Astronomy. France has equipped many 
observatories where work is being conducted, following 
carefully prepared plans, well organized, and actively 
executed. The long series of publications from these 
institutions — ^Paris, Bordeaux, Nice, Abbadie, Toulouse, 
Meudon, Besangon, Marseille, Lyon, Algiers — bear 
ample testimony of their fruitfulness. In the field of 
observations of position, the most notable among 
many excellent star catalogues is that of the Paris Ob- 
servatory, in eight volumes. Bossert's catalogue of 
proper motions is important in any work dealing with 
stellar motion. Double stars have been actively observed 
at Toulouse and by Jonckheere, who made many and 
important discoveries in this field, at the Observatoire 
d'Hem and later at Lille. In the discovery of celestial 
bodies the French observers present about sixty comets, 
about 180 asteroids, and many nebulae. Here the 
names Charlois, Chacornac, Coggia, Perrotin, the 
brothers Henry, Stephan, Borrelly, Temple, Giaco- 
BiNi, QuENissET, and others, are familiar. In photo- 
metric work the numerous and careful observations of 
LuiZET are of especial value. 



52 ASTRONOMY 

Practical Astronomy. Among astronomical instru- 
ments of French invention, mention may be made of 
the equatorial coude of Loewy and Puiseux; the in- 
dependent design of the spectrohehograph by Deslan- 
DRES (at practically the same time as by the American 
Hale); the " spectroenregistreur des vitesses" of 
Deslandres; and the recent use of the "astrolabe a 
prisme'' in the determination of latitude and time. 

In spectroscopy, the French contributions to the 
development of the science have been very great. In 
solar physics, they include the discovery of the spectro- 
scopic visibility of the solar prominences, independently 
of solar eclipses, by Janssen in 1868 (also made inde- 
pendently by LocKYER in England) ; the recent researches 
of Deslandres (whose spectro-heliograms are in many 
respects of unrivalled excellence) upon the upper layers 
of the solar atmosphere and the relative motion of their 
parts. In stellar spectroscopy, they include the 
FiZEAU extension of the Doppler principle, which made 
possible the whole movement for the spectroscopic de- 
termination of radial velocity; the discovery of those 
remarkable bodies which are still known, in honor of 
their discoverers, as the Wolf-Rayet stars; the spectro- 
scopic work of Hamy; and the work of Fabry and his 
collaborators on the Orion nebula. 

In astronomical photography, France occupies a 
leading position. This is perhaps natural, because the 
development of photography is in so large a part due to 
the French. The Atlas of the Moon, by Loewy and 
Puiseux, is the standard in its field; the solar photo- 
graphs of Janssen are in a class by themselves; but 
above all other work in importance towers the "Carte 
Photographique du Ciel,'' which, as its name implies, 
owes its inception largely to French influence. The 
headquarters of the international committee which 



ASTRONOMY 53 

supervises this great enterprise has always been in Paris, 
and zones have been undertaken and in large measure 
completed by the Observatories of Paris, Bordeaux, 
Toulouse, and Algiers. This committee has also or- 
ganized other important investigations, notably the 
campaign of observations on the asteroid Eros in 1900- 
1901, which has resulted in the most precise determina- 
tion of the distance of the Sun that has yet been made. 
The influence of France has been directed toward 
friendly cooperation on the large problems of astronomy, 
and thus Paris naturally has been the seat of many 
important astronomical Conferences. At the Conference 
on fundamental star positions, in 1896, a uniform system 
of values of the fundamental constants of astronomy 
was adopted for use in all astronomical ephemerides. 
At the "Conference Internationale des fiphemerides 
astronomiques,'^ in 191 1, a uniform system of presenta- 
tion of astronomical data was adopted by all the national 
Ephemerides, and arrangements were perfected for 
exchange of work involved in their computation and 
publication; these have been among the very few frag- 
ments of international cooperation to survive the shock 
of the Great War. 

Instruction. University of Paris, Here the principal 
courses of interest to the advanced student of Astronomy 
are the following: By Andoyer, a distinguished student of 
all matters which bear upon elegance and accuracy of com- 
putation: 1914-15, Theory of eclipses; 191 5-16, Elemen- 
tary solutions of the fundamental problems of Celestial 
mechanics. By Appell, widely known as a mathematician : 
1914-15, 191 5-16, Celestial Mechanics, Works of Poincare. 
By PuiSEUX, known for his studies on the Moon and on 
other astrophysical questions: 1914-15, Stars and Nebu- 
lae; 191 5-16, The Sun, solar spectrum, eclipses. 



54 ASTRONOMY 

Other Universities. Courses in Astronomy are given in 
almost all the provincial universities of France. The op- 
portunities of most interest to the graduate student are 
likely to be found at 

Marseille, where the observatory is open to foreign 
men of science for research, and practical instruction for 
students is arranged, under the direction of Fabry, the 
distinguished spectroscopist, known for his work on the 
precise measurement of wave-lengths. 

Lyon, where the observatory at St.-Genis-Laval, 
though principally devoted to research, admits students 
for practical instruction in astronomy, under the care of 
LuizET, one of the best-known students of variable stars. 

Toulouse, where the observatory, which has taken 
an important share in the preparation of the great inter- 
national photographic "Carte du Ciel,'* admits foreign 
investigators, and gives practical instruction to students 
in the University. 

The observatories of Algiers and Bordeaux, which 
are also doing work of the first quality, are likewise con- 
nected with the Universities situated in these cities. 



Botany and 
Agriculture 



Botany 



French botanists have been conspicuous chiefly in 
the development of Taxonomy and Palaeobotany. 

The first great name in the history of classification is 
that of TouRNEFORT (1656-1708), Professor at the Royal 
Gardens in Paris. He was the founder of genera; that is, 
he was the first who organized groups of species into the 
next higher category of classification. Later Antoine 
DE JussiEU, Director of the Museum of Natural History 
in Paris, published the first natural system of classifica- 
tion in his "Genera Plantarum" (1789), in which he 
first established the category of classification known as 
families, which are natural groups of genera. Then 
Auguste DE Candolle, first of Paris and later of Geneva, 
first grouped famihes into orders, the next higher cate- 
gory of classification, and established a sequence of 
families long used in all manuals of botany. 

As a consequence of this early work in classification, 
the Herbarium of the Jardin des Plantes contains more 
of the early "types" of North American plants than 
any other European collection, and must always be 
consulted in any monographic work. 

One of the outstanding names in the history of French 
botany is that of Lamarck (i 744-1829), who for twenty- 
five years was Director of the Royal Gardens, to which 
he gave the name "Jardin des Plantes,'* which has been 
used ever since. He was the author of the first "Flora of 
France," the pioneer manual of French botany. It was 

1 [Drafting Committee: J. M. Coulter, University of Chicago. — 
Ed.] 

57 



S8 BOTANY 

during his activities as a botanist that an unusual number 
of North American plants came to Paris for identifica- 
tion, and that the herbarium under his direction became 
rich in American "types/' Later Lamarck became a 
zoologist, and proposed the first great explanation of 
organic evolution, which is now usually referred to as 
''Lamarckism." 

The fossil flora of France is one of the best preserved 
in the world, and this has been taken advantage of in 
the strong development of Paleobotany by such leaders 
as Brongniart, who published the first extensive ac- 
count of fossil plants; followed by de Saporta, Renault, 
Zeiller, Bertrand, Grand-Eury, and Lignier. This 
very unusual group of palaeobotanists has contributed 
more to our knowledge of ancient vegetation than any 
group of palaeobotanists in the world. 

The more modern fields of botany, as morphology, 
plant pathology, anatomy, ecology, and plant breeding, 
have received important contributions from such in- 
vestigators as Van Tieghem, who first put the study of 
vascular anatomy upon its modern scientific basis; 
Bonnier, who was a pioneer in the study of the effect 
of environment on plants, especially the changes induced 
in the same plant by alpine and lowland habitats; Gui- 
gnard, who was a pioneer in the field of modern morphol- 
ogy, especially contributing to our knowledge of the 
reproduction and embryology of the higher plants, and 
discovering the phenomenon of double fertilization; 
and in addition Baillon, Dangeard, Sauvageau, 
CosTANTiN, and Prilleux. 

Instruction at Paris. The different institutions com- 
ing under the general title of the University of Paris 
offer unusual and varied opportunities to students of 
botany, especially the Sorbonne, the Ecole superieure de 



BOTANY 59 

Pharmade, and the Museum d'Histoire Naturelle. The 
laboratories are well equipped and rich in material, and 
the investigators in charge are constant contributors to 
botanical literature. Among the more notable teachers 
and investigators now available are the following: 

At the Sorbonne, Bonnier lectures upon the chem- 
istry of plant nutrition, a fundamental subject in scien- 
tific agriculture. Molliard supplements the point of 
view developed by Bonnier, by means of lectures in the 
physics of plants. Together these two courses intro- 
duce the student to the great modern field of plant 
physiology. In addition, Matruchot is an authority 
upon the lower plant groups (algae, fungi, and bacteria), 
and includes in his work with these groups a course in 
plant pathology. 

At the Ecole superieure de Pharmacie, a notable 
figure is that of Guignard, pioneer in modern morphol- 
ogy, whose discoveries and technique in this field are 
surpassed in no laboratory. His material includes chiefly 
the higher plants, but associated with him is Radais, 
an authority in cryptogams. The whole range of plant 
morphology, therefore, is presented by these two in- 
vestigators. 

At the Museum d'Histoire Naturelle a notable group 
of three investigators supplement one another, and offer 
a wide range af opportunity. Lecomte deals with the 
phanerogams, while Mangin is a specialist in cryptogams. 
Perhaps the unique opportunity, however, is offered by 
Costantin in his remarkable work on the scientific 
culture of plants. Recently he has solved the riddle of 
orchid culture, discovering that an associated parasite is 
necessary for seed germination. This indicates the 
fundamental nature of his culture studies. 

Opportunities Outside of Paris. There are at least 
three botanical institutions outside Paris that deserve 



6o BOTANY 

special mention because of the unusual opportunities 
they offer. 

The Laboratoire de Biologie vegetale at Fontainebleau 
is established in that famous forest, and furnishes a 
unique opportunity for what may be called field studies, 
in contrast with laboratory studies. The investigation 
of the activities of plants in the open is a necessary 
supplement to a knowledge of their structures as revealed 
in the laboratory. No student of botany in France should 
fail to come in contact with the Fontainebleau establish- 
ment. 

At Montpellier, the Institut de Botanique in connec- 
tion with the university is one of the famous establish- 
ments of the world. Its well equipped laboratories and 
library and its extensive botanic garden have long been 
used in connection with important research work. The 
distinguishing feature of the institute is its important 
work in agriculture, horticulture, and forestry. In 
addition to the equipment referred to, there is a moun- 
tain laboratory (Laboratoire du mont Aigoual), with an 
elevation of 1300 meters, which is organized for the 
study of mountain plants and alpine conditions. 

At Nancy, the Institut Agricole is a famous establish- 
ment, providing instruction in the profession of scientific 
agriculture in Europe or in the French colonies. Its 
five sections indicate the scope of the work and the 
opportunity: agriculture, dairy-farming, economics, 
colonial studies, and forestry. 



Agriculture' 

The recent history of agriculture in France has been 
that of a general movement, at first opposed, but finally 
remarkably successful. No training in agriculture is 
complete without including some knowledge of the 
organization and methods developed in France. 

The first movement was in the direction of agricultural 
education. In 1848 the government adopted a plan 
which provided agricultural teaching of three grades: 
(i) elementary practical instruction, (2) secondary 
practical and theoretical instruction, and (3) advanced 
training in the Institut National Agronomique. From 
the beginning good results were obtained, but opposi- 
tion led to the suppression of the Institut, and to a re- 
duction in the number of the other schools. Later, 
through the efforts of Eugene Tisserand, a successful 
organization of agricultural education was established, 
and the Institut National Agronomique was re-estab- 
lished with a competent staff, and since 1876 has been 
demonstrating its great usefulness. 

Secondary instruction is given in the three great central 
schools of Grignon, Montpellier, and Rennes; horti- 
culture is cared for by the Ecole Nationale d'Horti- 
culture, founded at Versailles in 1874; while the special 
needs of various regions have been met by secondary 
schools. Between the farm schools, intended to train 
skilled laborers in the practical side alone, and the 
secondary schools, there seemed to be too wide an inter- 

^ [Drafting Committee: J. M. Coulter, University of Chicago. — 
Ed.] 

61 



62 BOTANY 

val, and to meet this deficiency a law was passed in 
1875 organizing experimental agricultural schools to 
assist in the training of farmers' sons and daughters. 
Traveling schools also went from district to district, giving 
similar instruction in short courses. 

In 1879 ^ l^w was passed providing for professors and 
administrators of agriculture to visit the various dis- 
tricts, and from that time they have played an important 
role in organizing short courses, conferences, agricult- 
ural societies, mutual insurance societies, farmers' 
mutual loan companies, and organizations promoting 
cooperation in buying, selling and producing. Also 
demonstration fields and experiment stations, together 
with a variety of experimental research laboratories, 
were estabHshed in- various parts of the country. 

The progress of agricultural education has been aided 
largely through the efforts of agricultural societies. The 
Societe Nationale d 'Agriculture, founded in 1761, is 
foremost among these societies, and is now very properly 
properly called the Academic d'Agriculture. Its annals 
for a century and a half have contained the names of 
eminent scientists, who have contributed to the develop- 
ment of agriculture through chemistry, physics, botany, 
and zoology. It is still of great assistance in bringing 
the results of science to the solution of soil problems. 

Several other large societies are grouped about the 
Academic d'Agriculture, ranging from La Societe des 
Agriculteurs de France, the oldest of the societies, with 
9000 members scattered throughout the country, to the 
recently founded Societe Nationale d'Encouragement 
a I'Agriculture. La Societe Nationale d'Horticulture de 
France for 25 years has been prominent in caring for 
the horticultural interests, while vine growers are rep- 
resented by* La Societe des Viticulteurs de France. About 
these large organizations are grouped very numerous 



AGRICULTURE 63 

smaller societies, all contributing to the cultivation of 
interest in agriculture by means of bulletins, meetings, 
and fairs. 

A summary of the advancement in agricultural educa- 
tion in France during the past 40 years is as follows: 
establishment of education in scientific agriculture 
through the Institut National Agronomique; providing 
for secondary agricultural education in national schools; 
organization of primary agricultural education by estab- 
lishing schools of practical agriculture; creation of a 
complete staff of professors to teach the best and most 
useful methods in rural communities; inauguration of 
practical agricultural instruction for girls and popular 
instruction for adults through traveling schools of short 
courses, held during the winter; dissemination and 
popularization of agricultural knowledge by agricultural 
societies; supplementing theoretical and practical instruc- 
tion by demonstrations at various fairs, permitting 
farmers to know and appreciate the annual advance of 
agricultural science. 

Another notable feature of French agriculture is 
agricultural cooperation. While only a minority of the 
farmers have come in direct contact with the instruction 
provided, economic stress has tended to bring all the 
farmers together. In 1884 a law was passed for the 
organization of professional syndicates, and by an 
amendment it was extended to include the farmers. 
The purpose of the agricultural syndicate was to study 
and defend the economic and other interests of the 
farmers. One of the first undertakings was the purchase 
on a large scale of fertilizers, thus giving the small 
farmer the advantages of reduced prices, guaranteed 
quality, and low freight charges upon this important 
commodity. The scope of these syndicates was ex- 
tended later to include large purchases of selected seed, 



64 BOTANY 

well bred farm animals, agricultural machinery, and 
insecticides. This not only resulted in economy from 
wholesale buying and shipping, but had a beneficial 
educational effect in the introduction of improved seed, 
better cattle, tools, and methods. Later, attention 
was directed to conditions of marketing, and many 
syndicates collected and graded the crops of their mem- 
bers, marketing them to much greater advantage and 
gaining the further advantage of low freight charges 
upon car-load shipments. 

The syndicates have proved great social factors in 
bringing together, upon an entirely equal footing, pro- 
prietor, tenant, and laborer, under the motto "All for 
each, and each for all." In 1887 there were 214 syndi- 
cates; in 1805 the number was 1188, including 400,000 
adherents; and at the present time there are more than 
6000 organizations, including nearly 1,000,000 farmers. 

Another feature of agriculture in France is the farm 
loan system, which created a system of credit for farmers 
somewhat different from commercial credit. Mutual 
farm loan companies have been established by members of 
the farmers' syndicates. These loan companies were made 
possible by advances from the State, through the Bank of 
France. In 1910 there existed 98 central companies and 
3000 local companies, comprising 152,000 members; and 
the plan has proved to be extremely successful. 

Before 1898 no special encouragement was given to 
agriculture by mutual insurance societies; then laws 
were passed authorizing insurance societies to benefit 
by the law in reference to rural syndicates, and in 191 2 
there were 13,000 local mutual organizations insuring 
against loss by death of cattle or by fire. A series of 
guarantees is provided, extending from the local societies, 
through central companies, to "The Central Trust of 
the Syndicate of Farmers of France." 



AGRICULTURE 65 

The whole syndicate movement in France has been 
a happy means of grouping all the vital forces of agri- 
culture into a common and democratic movement. In 
consequence, the condition of the rural population has 
been immensely improved, both in spirit and in product. 

The standing of agriculture in France was improved 
in 1 88 1 by the appointment of a Minister of Agriculture. 
Before that time the interests of agriculture were en- 
trusted successively to the Minister of the Interior, of 
Commerce, and of Public Works. The Minister of 
Agriculture has, among his other duties, charge of the 
supervision of agricultural education, cooperation, and 
improvements; of horse-breeding and veterinary educa- 
tion; of suppressing frauds in agricultural products. 
The improvements under the regime of ministers of 
agriculture have been marked. Among the means 
adopted for encouraging agriculture may be cited the 
organization of central and local fairs, awarding prizes 
for crops, investigations of the suitability of farm ma- 
chinery, encouragement of the industrial use of denatured 
alcohol, and the collection and publication of annual 
statistics of farm products. 

The forestry school of Nancy, founded in 1824, became 
more truly a scientific institution when in 1888 its stu- 
dents were required to present diplomas from the In- 
stitut National Agronomique for their matriculation. 
Other schools for advanced and secondary work in 
forestry were also established. The Forest Service ad- 
ministered the State forests, and at the same time had 
charge of projects for the reforestation of mountains 
and the conservation of woodlands. Since 1880 the 
State forests have been increased 22 per cent., and each 
year 7000 hectares are reforested. The rural hydrauHc 
service has charge of drainage and irrigation projects and 
the flood control of streams. The development and 



66 BOTANY 

utilization of the water-power of the wooded mountains 
through easily transportable electric power has received 
attention, and as a result many thousands of horse- 
power are available from the French Alps. Recently 
efforts have been made to utilize some of this power 
in promoting rural industries. 

The remarkably effective organization of the agri- 
cultural interests of France deserves the careful study of 
all students of agriculture in this country. 



Chemistry 



Chemistry 



There was a time, thanks chiefly to the genius of 
Lavoisier, when chemistry was in truth a "French 
science." Now that it has diffused from France over the 
whole world and become international, the labors of 
that epoch remain as an inspiration to chemists of every 
nation. There is hardly a single tendency of the science 
which is not founded upon the researches of the French. 

From the time of Lavoisier, the development of 
French chemistry was rapid and broad, because founded 
upon measurement and established in a very favorable 
environment. Berthollet, Gay-Lussac, and Thenard, 
at the beginning of last century; later Chevreul, Dumas, 
Laurent and Gerhardt, Wijrtz, Sainte-Claire 
Deville, and Berthelot, together with Ampere and 
Pasteur (two great names better known in other fields), 
contributed a large part of the principles, the theories, 
and the facts upon which the modern science rests. 
More recently Berthelot (the undisputed head of French 
chemistry, and perhaps the most versatile of modern 
chemists), Moissan, Becquerel, Curie, and others 
still alive, have worthily continued the great national 
tradition. 

Dalton's rudimentary atomic theory required the prin- 
ciple of Lavoisier as its necessary foundation. To its 
development, Gay-Lussac contributed the law of 
volumes and a study of the radical of cyanogen. Ampere 

1 [Drafting Committee; W. D. Bancroft, Cornell University; 
F. B. Dains, University of Kansas; L. J. Henderson, Harvard 
University. — Ed.] 

69 



70 CHEMISTRY 

an independent formulation of the hypothesis of Avo- 
gadro, Dumas the idea of substitution, Laurent and 
Gerhardt the conception of t)rpes, Pasteur the beau- 
tiful and subtle theory of molecular asymmetry, Le Bel 
and Guye the fundamentals of stereochemistry. To 
the development of organic chemistry, which served at 
every later stage as the support of the growing atomic 
theory, Chevreul contributed the explanation of the 
constitution of the fats; Dumas, Raoult, Guye, 
WtJRTZ, St.-Gilles, and Berthelot, a great variety of 
important discoveries. Not less do inorganic chemistry 
(through the labors of a large number of investigators), 
crystallography (through the researches of Rome de 
LTsLE and Haijy), and physical chemistry (through 
those of Berthollet and Gay-Lussac), take their 
origin in France. Turning to another field, the begin- 
nings of the science of metabolism are to be found in 
the researches of Lavoisier and Laplace, while the 
labors of Pasteur have revolutionized chemical biology 
and created chemical pathology. The early develop- 
ment of agricultural chemistry is illustrated by the 
work of BoussiNGAULT. And lastly the history of 
chemistry has profited by many important investigations 
of Berthelot and Duhem. 

University instruction and research in France at the 
present time may be summarized by mentioning the 
best-known workers: 

Instruction at Paris. I. At the Sorbonne (faculty 
of sciences): Mme. Curie, professor of physics, the 
co-discoverer (with her husband, who died in 1906) of 
radium, the discoverer of poloniimi, and the author of a 
series of investigations in the important field which 
her own labors, extending Henri Becquerel's discovery 
of the radio-activity of uranium, have opened to science; 





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ll 





ANTOINE LAURENT LAVOISIER (i 743-1 794) 

CLAUDE LOUIS BERTHOLLET (1748-18 2 2) 

(From a painting in the Sorbonne) 



CHEMISTRY 71 

Mme. Curie is a Nobel Laureate and (with P. Curie) 
the author of a work ^^Traite de radioactivite" (2 vols., 
Paris, 1 910); Le Chatelier, professor of chemistry, 
a physical chemist of great eminence and versatility, 
author of researches on chemical thermodynamics, 
on pyrometry, the equilibria of alloys, and the micros- 
copy of alloys; he has published "Recherches experi- 
mentales et theoriques sur les equilibres chimiques/' 
(Paris, 1880), "Introduction a Tetude de la metallurgie/' 
(Paris, 191 2), "Legons sur le carbone, la combustion, les 
lois chimiques" (Paris, 1908), and " La silice et les sili- 
cates"; Urbain, professor of chemistry, famous especially 
for his investigations upon the rare earths, their separa- 
tion and their spectroscopy, author of "Introduction ^ 
I'etude de la Spectrochimie," (Paris, 191 1); Haller, 
professor of organic chemistry, a specialist in the investi- 
gation of camphor and its derivatives, of alcohol, and of 
reactions of reduction, author of "Theorie generale des 
alcools'' (Paris, 1879), ^.nd "Les recents progres de la 
Chimie organique'' (3 vols., Paris, 1 904-1 908); G. 
Bertrand (of the Institut Pasteur), professor of biol- 
ogical chemistry, a student of enzymes, especially the 
oxydases, and of the sugars; Chabrte, professor of 
apphed chemistry; Jean Perrin, professor of physical 
chemistry, who has conducted important investigations 
on the Brownian movement, the theory of colloids, and 
the molecular kinetic theory, author of "Rayons catho- 
diques et rayons de Roentgen'' (Paris, 1897), "Traite 
de Chimie physique, Les principes" (Paris, 1903), and 
"Les atomes" (Paris, 1913). 

II. At the College de France: Matignon, a physical 
chemist whose researches have been especially in the 
field of thermochemistry, and of the rare earths; Jung- 
FLEiscH, an organic chemist who has made important 
investigations upon tartaric acid and certain derivatives 



72 CHEMISTRY 

of benzene, (with Berthelot) author of "Traite de Chimie 
organique'^ (4th ed., 3 vol., Paris, 1 907-1 908), and 
"Legons sur les methodesgeneralesde synthase en chimie 
organique'^ (Paris, 1864). 

III. At the Museum d'Histoire Naturelle: Maquenne, 
whose researches extend over the field of the carbo- 
hydrates, author of ''Les Sucres et leurs principaux 
derives" (Paris, 1900); and Aenaud. 

IV. At the Ecole Superieure de Pharmacie: Behal, 
an organic chemist who, among other subjects, has 
studied unsaturated compounds and creosote, author of 
''Traite de Chimie organique" (2 vols., Paris, 1909-1911, 
3d ed.); Gautier, known for various investigations in 
organic chemistry, in chemical toxicology, and in 
hygiene, author of ''Cours de Chimie organique" (Paris, 
1906, 3d ed.), "Ptomaines et leucomaines'' (Paris, 1866), 
and "L 'Alimentation et les regimes chez I'homme sain 
et chez les malades" (Paris, 1904); D. Berthelot, 
author of important researches on the theory of gases, 
the determination of molecular weights, and photo- 
chemistry; MouREu, a student of the rare gases of the 
atmosphere, and an eminent organic chemist, author of 
"Notions fondamentales de Chimie organique" (Paris, 
1902); BouRQUELOT, whose researches upon enzymes are 
well-known, author of "Les Ferments solubles" (Paris, 
1896); ViLLiERs; Guimbert; and Lebeau. 

V. At the Ecole Municipale de Chimie, Hanriot 
and CoPAux; at the Faculty of Medicine, Desgrez; 
at the Ecole Libre des Hautes Etudes Scientifiques, 
Hamonet. 

There are also at Paris, chiefly at the Institut Pas- 
teur, a number of others, including Bertrand, Roux, 
Mesnil, Delezenne, Chamberland, Martin, Maze, 
MouTON, J. DucLAux, whose investigations fall in the 
borderland of chemistry, physiology, pathology, and 



CHEMISTRY 73 

general biology. Also in Paris, but not connected with 
the ministry of public instruction, are a considerable 
number of other chemists of distinction, including 
Le Bel, G. Lemoine, Schloesing, Schloesing fils, 
and MtJNTZ. 

In 1914-15 the courses in chemistry given in Paris 
were as foUows: 

I. Faculty of Sciences. General Physics: Mme. 
Curie, "Ions in Gases and the Phenomena of Radio- 
activity/' General Chemistry: Le Chatelier, ''The 
Properties of the Metals and the General Laws of Chem- 
istry/' Chemistry: Urbain, "Thermochemistry and 
the Energetics of Chemical Reactions/' Organic 
Chemistry: Haller, "The Aromatic Series." Physical 
Chemistry: Perrin, "General Physical Chemistry." 
Applied Chemistry: Chabrte, " Fuels, Precious Metals 
and the Manufacture of Alcohol." Biological Chemistry: 
Bertrand, "The Chemical Composition of Living 
Organisms." 

In addition to these courses, numerous conferences 
were held, as follows: Ouvrard, "Technology;" 
GuiCHARD, "The Study of Original Memoirs in General 
Chemistry, and the Metalloids and Metals;" V. Auger, 
"Inorganic Chemistry;" Blaise, "Organic Chemistry, 
General Principles and Study of the Aliphatic Series;" 
Fernbach, "Microbes in the Fermentation Industry, 
and AlcohoHc Fermentation." 

II. Institut de Chimie Appliquee. In this institute, 
under the direction of Chabrte, are given certain courses 
supplementary to those of the faculty of sciences, in- 
cluding elementary qualitative and quantitative analysis 
by Binet du Jassonneix, qualitative organic analysis 
and organic preparations by Freundler, analysis and 
preparation of industrial products by Marquis, and 
physical chemistry and electrochemistry by Marie. 



74 CHEMISTRY 

Students, including foreigners, over eighteen years of age 
are admitted to this school by examination. 

III. At the Faculte de Medecine, there are courses 
on chemistry applied to medicine, conducted by Desgrez 
and Labbe, together with other courses in physiology, 
medical physics, hygiene, pharmacology, pathology, 
etc. 

IV. At the Ecole Superieure de Pharmacie there are 
the following courses: Villiers, qualitative and quanti- 
tative analysis; Gautier, inorganic chemistry; Grimbert, 
biological chemistry; Behal, organic chemistry; Lebeau, 
toxicology; Bourquelot, pharmacy; Moureu, chemical 
pharmacy. 

V. At the Institut Pasteur there is a section of biol- 
ogical chemistry, comprising a laboratory of biological 
chemistry (affiliated with the faculty of sciences), the 
service of fermentations, a laboratory of agricultural 
chemistry, and a laboratory for instruction in biological 
chemistry. This section of the Institute gives theoretical 
and practical instruction in the several branches of the 
subject; to this instruction properly qualified foreigners 
are admitted. 

VI. There are also courses on chemistry and allied 
subjects at the College de France, at the Museum d^His- 
toire Naturelle, and in various other places. 

VII. The Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes includes 
a number of chemical laboratories. Qualified students 
are admitted as members of this school, without regard 
to age or nationality or formal qualification, into its 
laboratories, at the pleasure of the laboratory chief. 
This arrangement makes free the access to nearly all 
the advanced laboratories of Paris. 

Laboratories in the following subjects are associated 
with this school: Inorganic chemistry at the Sorbonne 
(Le Chatelier, director) ; Chemistry, at the Ecole Normale 



CHEMISTRY 75 

(Lespieau, director); Inorganic Chemistry, at the Col- 
lege de France (Matignon, director); Biological Chemis- 
try, at the Institut Pasteur (Roux, director); Organic 
Chemistry, at the College de France (Jungfleisch, 
director); Organic Chemistry, at the Sorbonne (Haller, 
director); Pathological Chemistry, at the College de 
France (Goupil, director). 

VIII. The Institute of Hydrology and Climatology 
includes the following laboratories, among others : Water 
Analysis, at the Sorbonne (Urbain, director); Physical 
Chemistry, at the ficole Superieure de Pharmacie 
(Moureu, director). 

IX. There are also chemical laboratories in the 
various institutes and schools of agriculture, horticulture, 
veterinary medicine, etc., which abound in the capital 
and its environs, as well as at the ficole Municipale de 
Chimie. 

Provincial Universities. Opportunities for study and 
research in chemistry at the other universities are far less 
varied than at Paris, and in the different institutions 
are decidedly unequal. In some instances, as at Nancy, 
every department of the science is represented, and the 
student has every necessary opportunity at his disposal. 
But in certain smaller institutions each faculty has but 
a single chair of chemistry. The subject is, however, 
always represented in both the faculty of sciences and 
the faculty (or "ficole preparatoire") of medicine; it is 
also represented in certain "Facultes libres;'' and there 
are, of course, in connection with the schools of medicine, 
various chairs which are chiefly concerned with one or 
another aspect of the more fundamental science. In 
some instances, there are also institutes of chemistry 
and applied chemistry affiliated with the university 
faculties. It should be distinctly understood that some 
of the best chemists in France are to be found in the 



76 CHEMISTRY 

provinces. The following list includes most of the 
principal chemists of the several provincial universities: 

Besangon. Faculty of sciences: L. Boutroux, pro- 
fessor of chemistry; Tissier, professor of applied chem- 
istry. 

Bordeaux. Faculty of sciences: Gayon, professor of 
chemistry; Vezes, professor of inorganic chemistry and 
director of a technical laboratory; Vigouroux, known 
for his researches on alloys; M. Dubourg, adjunct 
professor of agricultural chemistry and head of the 
school of applied chemistry. Faculty of medicine and 
pharmacy: Blarez, professor of chemistry; Deniges, 
professor of biological chemistry, known for his investi- 
gation of a number of interesting reactions. 

Caen, Faculty of sciences: Besson, professor of 
chemistry. School of medicine': Chretien, professor 
of chemistry. 

Clermont. Faculty of sciences: Chavastelon, pro- 
fessor of chemistry. School of medicine: Huguet, pro- 
fessor of chemistry. 

Dijon. Faculty of sciences and School of medicine: 
Pigeon, professor of chemistry. Faculty of sciences: 
Metzner, adjunct professor of industrial and agricultural 
chemistry. 

Grenoble. Faculty of sciences: Recoura, professor 
of chemistry, known for his researches in inorganic 
chemistry; Flusin, professor of electrochemistry and 
electrometallurgy, who is also associated with the 
Institut filectrotechnique. 

Lille. Faculty of sciences: Lemoult, professor of 
general chemistry; Buisine, professor of industrial and 
agricultural chemistry and director of the institute of 
chemistry. Among the other chemists in this faculty 
may be mentioned: Faculty of medicine: Lambling, 
professor of organic chemistry; Lescceur, professor of 




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CHEMISTRY 77 

inorganic chemistry and toxicology. There are also at 
Lille chairs of chemistry in the "Facultes hbres" of 
medicine and sciences. 

Lyon. Faculty of sciences: Barbier, professor of 
chemistry, an eminent organic chemist, well known for 
his numerous researches in the determination of consti- 
tution and on reduction; Vignon, professor of industrial 
and agricultural chemistry; and several others. Faculty 
of medicine: Hugounenq, professor of medical chem- 
istry, known for his spectroscopical work; Morel, 
professor of organic chemistry; and several others. 
. Marseille, Faculty of sciences: Perdrix, professor 
of general chemistry; Rivals, professor of industrial 
chemistry. School of medicine: Moitessier, professor 
of medical chemistry. 

Montpellier, Faculty of sciences: de Forcrand, pro- 
fessor of chemistry, known for his investigation upon 
heterogeneous equilibrium, thermochemistry, and 
thermodynamics; Oechsner de Coninck, professor of 
chemistry, and likewise a well-known investigator; in 
this faculty there are also several other chemists. Faculty 
of medicine: Ville, professor of medical chemistry. 

Nancy, Faculty of sciences: Muller, professor of 
physical chemistry; Petit, professor of agricultural 
chemistry; Wahl, professor of industrial chemistry; 
GuNTZ, professor of inorganic chemistry and director 
of the Institut Chimique, known for his researches on 
lithium and barium; Grignard, professor of organic 
chemistry, winner of the Nobel prize for his researches 
upon organomagnesium compounds, author of "Sur les 
combinations organomagnesiennes mixtes et leurs 
appHcations" (Lyon, 1901); Minguin, professor of 
chemistry; Guyot, professor of the chemistry of dyeing 
and printing. Faculty of medicine: Garnier, professor 
of medical chemistry. 



78 CHEMISTRY 

Poitiers. Faculty of sciences: Roux and Bodroux, 
professors of chemistry. School of medicine: Sauvage, 
professor of chemistry. 

Rennes. Faculty of sciences: Bouzat, professor of 
chemistry. School of medicine: Lenormand and 
Laurent, professors of chemistry. 

Toulouse. Faculty of sciences: Paul Sabatier, pro- 
fessor of chemistry and director of the institute of 
chemistry, whose researches upon catalytic organic 
reductions have been awarded the Nobel prize, author 
of "La Catalyse en Chimie organique'' (Paris, 1913); 
GiRAN, professor of chemistry; Fab re, professor of agri- 
cultural and industrial chemistry and director of the 
Station Agronomique. Faculty of medicine: Aloy, 
professor of chemistry. At the Faculte libre of Toulouse, 
Tabbe Senderens, the collaborator with Sabatier in 
his important researches, is professor of chemistry. 



Criminology 



Criminology 

Ever since the famous reports of La Rochefoucauld- 
LiANCOURT to the National Assembly in 1790 and 1791, 
France has been a center of lively interest in the subject 
of criminalistics. His studies of mendicity, reforma- 
tories, poor relief, and the Philadelphia prison system, 
have been guide-posts for a century. But even before 
that, Voltaire had popularized the ideas of Beccaria. 
The tradition was carried on in the nineteenth century 
by great sociologists like QuETELET,who laid the founda- 
tions of criminal statistics; by great publicists like 
De Tocqueville, who added a strand to the bonds 
between France and America by his notable report on 
the penitentiary system in the United States and its 
application in France (1833); by great physiologists like 
Lauvergne, who anticipated some of Lombroso's 
theories; by great men of letters like Lamartine, who 
thought it no condescension to offer to the cause of 
neglected childhood some of his most masterly eloquence; 
and by great medical men like Morel and Despine, 
who blazed new paths in criminal psychiatry. The 
whole nineteenth century was a period of free trade 
between these two republics in the field of charities and 
correction. France borrowed ideas of prison adminis- 
tration. America in return imported both ideas and men 
for developing our system of caring for the blind, deaf- 
mutes, feeble-minded, and insane. Recently France 

1 [Drafting Committee: C. A. Ell wood, University of Missouri; 
Maurice Parmelee, College of the City of New York; A. J. Todd, 
University of Minnesota. — Ed.] 

81 



82 CRIMINOLOGY 

once more exemplified the same principle by taking 
over from us the Juvenile Court. Another illustration 
may be found in the proposal by Tarde to substitute 
our system of electrocution for the guillotine as the 
best method of capital punishment. Finally, it is not 
too much to say that the American system of the inde- 
terminate sentence and parole is to no small degree 
the child of French inspiration. For it appears that 
the first pubhc proclamation of the principle of con- 
ditional liberation of prisoners came through a remarkable 
address of Bonneville de Marsangy at Rheims in 
1846; this address (translated and pubhshed by F. H. 
Wines in 1866) formed one of the foundation stones of 
our Elmira Reformatory System. 

France, then, offers two fields for the student of crim- 
inalistics: penal administration and criminology proper. 

The French School of Criminology. The tendency of 
the French criminologists has been to lay special em- 
phasis upon the influence of the environment in the 
causation of crime. Consequently, the so-called "French 
School' ' of criminology has frequently been called the 
"school of the environment.'' This tendency has been 
due in part to an attempt to oppose and counteract the 
tendency of the Italian criminologists to put excessive 
emphasis upon the influence of pathological and abnormal 
anatomical and physiological traits in the causation of 
crime. It has also been due to the important place 
given in France to the study of law, politics, and the 
social sciences. 

At the same time the notable achievements of the 
French in physiology, psychology, and anthropology 
have had their influence upon the development of crim- 
inology in that country. A number of careful studies 
have been made of the physical traits of criminals, and 



a 







■•♦w^- 






;^- 




GABRIEL TARDE (1843-1904) 
(From the monument by Injalbert) 



CRIMINOLOGY 



CRIMINOLOGY Ss 

much attention has been given to the psychiatric aspect 
of crime. Legal medicine has been developed in France 
perhaps further than in any other country. 

Criminologists. Two French criminologists deserve 
special mention. One of them is the sociologist, the late 
Gabriel Tarde, who was at first a provincial magistrate, 
later chief of the Bureau of Statistics, and then professor 
at the College de France in Paris. In all of his crimino- 
logical writings his principal effort was to analyze the 
influence of the social factors in the causation of crime. 
Among his books are "La philosophic penale" (translated 
into English), "La criminaHte comparee," "Etudes 
penales et sociales," "Les transformations du droit," 
"Les transformations du pouvoir.'' 

The other is Alexandre Lacassagne, professor of legal 
medicine at the University of Lyon, and founder and 
editor of the leading criminological journal in France 
(and perhaps in the world), the "Archives d 'Anthropologic 
criminelle, de Medecine legale, et de Psychologic nor- 
male et pathologique." Lacassagne has, in a sense, been 
the official spokesman of the French school of crim- 
inology. He is the leader of a group of criminologists 
who have been very active in research work and in 
criminological publication. He has written volumin- 
ously on the statistical and other social aspects of 
crime, while his medico-legal treatises make him one 
of the leading authorities in the world on the subject of 
legal medicine. 

A. CoRRE has pubKshed several valuable books con- 
taining both general and specialized studies of the causes 
of crime: "Crime et suicide,'' "Les criminels," "L'eth- 
nographie criminelle" (with P. Aubry), "Documents de 
criminologie retrospective." E. Laurent has made 
special studies on prisons, and has also written about 



84 CRIMINOLOGY 

the general problems of criminology: "Les habitues des 
prisons de Paris/' "Le criminel," "L'anthropologie 
criminelle et les nouvelles theories du crime." C. Per- 
kier has made special studies on prisons : "Lescriminels," 
^'Emprisonnement et criminahte/' H. Joly has pub- 
lished numerous works containing many statistical data: 
^'Le crime," "La France criminelle," "L'enfance cou- 
pable," "La Belgique criminelle," "Problemes de science 
criminelle." L. Proal, a magistrate, has written vo- 
luminously and graphically: "Le crime et la peine,^' 
"La criminalite politique," "Le crime et le suicide 
passionnels." J. Maxwell, a public prosecutor, has 
written scholarly works on the nature of crime: "Le 
crime et la societe," "Le concept social du crime." 
G. ViDAL has published voluminous compilations of 
criminal law and of the data of modern criminological 
science: "Principes fondamentaux de la penalite dans 
les systemes les plus modernes," "Cours de droit criminel 
et de science penitentiaire." J. Dallemagne has pre- 
pared several useful little handbooks of the different 
aspects of criminology: "Les theories de la criminaHte," 
"Les stigmates anatomiques de la criminaHte," "Les 
stigmates biologiques et sociologiques de la criminalite." 

Criminology in the Universities. In all of the law 

schools are given courses on criminal law and procedure. 
In the medical schools of the universities of Paris, Bor- 
deaux, Lille, Lyon, Montpellier, Nancy, and Toulouse, 
are given courses on legal medicine. The two universi- 
ties at which the facilities for studying criminology are 
sufficiently extensive to require special mention are 
these of Paris and Lyon. 

At the University of Paris, in the law school are given 
courses on criminal law and penology by Gar^on and 
Le Poittevin. There is a special seminary room for 




CRIMINOLOGY 



CRIMINOLOGY 85 

students of criminology. A diploma is given for special 
studies in penal science ("Certificat de science penale"). 
In the medical school are given courses in legal medicine 
by Thoinot and Ribierre. There is a laboratory and 
an institute of legal medicine. To those who qualify 
is given the diploma of medico-legal expert (medecin 
legiste). In addition to these medical and legal courses 
should be noted the courses of Durkheim, which cor- 
relate closely criminalistics with other social phenomena. 
In addition to the courses in the University, courses of 
interest to students of criminology are frequently given 
in various other educational institutions in Paris. Among 
these are the College de France, Ecole d 'Anthropologic, 
Institut general Psychologique, Ecole libre des Sciences 
Politiques, Ecole des Hautes Etudes Sociales, College 
libre des Sciences Sociales. 

At the University of Lyon, where Lacassagne is the 
chief figure, special courses in penology are given in the 
law school. Courses on legal medicine are given in the 
medical school, and there is a celebrated medico-legal 
laboratory. 

In Paris an extensive criminological literature is to 
be found in the Bibliotheque Nationale, and in the library 
of the Law School. The Musee Social also affords some 
facilities in this line. At the Palais de Justice, where 
Bertillon worked out his famous anthropometric system 
of identification, are the identification bureau and the 
school for teaching identification methods to the police. 
The Societe Generale des Prisons holds frequent meetings 
of interest to students of criminology. There are several 
prisons in or near Paris illustrating different types of 
prisons, among them the Prison de la Sante, La Petite 
Roquette, etc. 

There are many other penal institutions in France 
worthy of inspection; perhaps the most famous of these 



86 CRIMINOLOGY 

is the Colonie de Mettray, a pioneer in juvenile reforma- 
tories. 

At the University of Lyon are a museum of legal 
medicine and a museum of criminal anthropology. 

Penal Administration. The large number of "patro- 
nages, ''particularly for the care and protection of neglected 
and delinquent children in Paris, Lyon, Le Havre, and 
other large cities, offer opportunity for research into 
both causative and preventive factors in crime. Nor 
should the "Tribunaux pour enfants et adolescents" 
be overlooked. So important has this juvenile court 
movement become that a special journal, the "Revue 
des Tribunaux pour Enfants," was founded in 19 13. Its 
collaborators include Senator Berenger (the great philan- 
thropist who fathered the probation system of 1891), Pro- 
fessors CucHE of Grenoble, Gar^on and Le Poittevin of 
Paris, Garraud of Lyon, and such distinguished advocates 
and judges as Albanel, Flory, Lemercier, Prevost, 
Prudhomme, Robert, Rollet, Teutsch, and Vidal- 
Naquet. The famous psychological clinic founded by 
BiNET at the University of Paris furnishes opportunities 
for co-ordinating this study of juvenile delinquency; the 
so-called "Binet-Simon scale" is the basis for most of 
the psychopathic testing employed in American courts 
and institutions. 

Finally, the admirable statistical service of both 
national and municipal bureaus offers to the student 
unusual opportunities for access to bodies of statistical 
fact and also for training in statistical method. The 
French official "Compte general de I'administration de 
la justice," beginning in 1826, is the longest systematic 
record available for any country in the world. 



Education 



Education' 

Educational theorists have never been lacking in France, 
as names like Rabelais, Montaigne, and Rousseau 
easily indicate. In French educational history during 
the nineteenth century, names like Guizot, Duruy, 
Ferry, Pecaut, Greard, Buisson, Compayre, and 
LiARD, come most readily to mind. Of these, all save 
Pecaut and Compayre will go down in history as or- 
ganizers or administrators. Pecaut, of sweet spirit, 
is the only one who lives pre-eminently as a teacher. 
Compayre enjoys relatively greater renown outside 
France than in his native country. Buisson, encyclo- 
pedist, administrator, professor in the University of 
Paris, and for many years an active and influential mem- 
ber of the Chamber of Deputies, still lives in Paris. 
Buisson worked hand and glove with Jules Ferry in 
effecting the great reforms of the early '8o's which 
veritably made the present system of primary educa- 
tion in France. Liard, of eloquent speech and true 
pedagogical insight, the worthy successor of Greard as 
vice-rector of the University of Paris, has long wielded 
a powerful influence in university and secondary circles 
at the French capital. 

DuPANLOUP, QuiNET and Michelet, Jules Simon 
and Michel Breal, Marion, Lavisse, Fouillee, Guyau 
and Perez, Madame Pape-Carpentier and Madame 

1 [Drafting Committee: John Dewey, Columbia University; 
Frederic E. Farrington, U. S. Bureau of Education; Paul H. 
Hanus, Harvard University; Charles H. Judd, University of 
Chicago.] 

89 



90 EDUCATION 

Kergomard, Binet and Ribot (these latter two, psy- 
chologists), have all made valuable contributions to the 
development of educational thought. 

But during the past hundred years French educators 
have been nothing if not practical. Teacher-training 
has loomed large in French educational life. In support 
therefor one has only to cite the centenary of her higher 
normal school, celebrated over two decades ago, and the 
hundred and sixty or more primary normal schools, scat- 
tered through the various departments, to say nothing 
of the girls' higher normal schools, two higher primary 
normal schools, as well as other teacher-training institu- 
tions — all included within an area less than three-quarters 
the size of Texas. 

In all these training schools, three aims have been 
constantly kept to the fore: The student should know 
his subject thoroughly; he should know more than his 
subject; and he should know how to teach his subject. 
It may fairly be asserted that during the past generation 
no country in the world has succeeded better than France 
in accomplishing this triple purpose in teacher-prepara- 
tion. 

Curricula, courses of study, methods of instruction 
and organization, textbooks, and innumerable other 
details are regulated by a central authority, usually at 
Paris itself, after carefully culling the best ideas from 
the educational leaders of the country. A system or- 
ganized on such a basis may make less striking innova- 
tions in educational procedure, and may reduce the 
opportunities for experimentation and scientific work, 
but at the same time it conduces to more consistent 
educational progress. In fact, long before the term 
gained general acceptance, France was following a kind 
of pedagogical pragmatism in the conduct of its edu- 
cational affairs. In a word, France has little to offer 







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FERDINAND BUISSON (1841-) 



EDUCATION 91 

the foreign student in the way of mere formal study of 
educational theory as a university subject, much less 
does it hold out any inducement to the mere seeker 
after academic distinction. 

On the other hand, for the educator of mature mind, 
able to use his educational theory as a tool, capable 
of observing, judging, and evaluating educational or- 
ganization and practice, France offers an almost virgin 
field for study. With a highly organized educational 
system in full working order, with practically every type 
of educational institution in successful operation, France 
yields to no other country in the world in the excellence 
of its individual institutions of learning. These are 
well worth the study of the professional educator, from 
the University with its traditional faculties, as well as 
its more modern adjuncts (to say nothing of independent 
institutions of university grade like the College de 
France, the ficole des Hautes fitudes Sociales, the Institut 
Oceanographique, and the like), through its famous old 
lycees and other types of secondary schools, its various 
grades of scientific and technical schools, its commercial, 
industrial, and agricultural schools, all the way down to 
the modest primary school. Each type or each school 
has an organization and in many cases a methodology 
of its own. 

In view of the practical trend in French education, 
the absence of education courses, in the narrow sense 
of the term, occasions no surprise. In the University 
of Paris, only one professor, Dukkheim, lectures in that 
field, announcing three courses under the general cap- 
tion: Science of education and sociology. One of these 
courses is in ethics; one is concerned with the history of 
pedagogical doctrines; and one is a practical course de- 
signed to meet the needs of candidates for the master's 



92 EDUCATION 

degree. What may be called special method courses, 
however, are very numerous in the faculty of letters. 
In 1 9 14-15, for example, fourteen of the twenty-five 
instructors giving courses in history, and four of the 
five giving courses in geography, announced special 
work for candidates for the higher certificates or degrees. 
DuRKHEiM, who enjoys an international reputation 
as a sociologist through his work on ^'Suicide,'' was 
called from Bordeaux some years ago as successor to 
the late Henri Marion. 

Some attention is given to educational theory in the 
course of the Ecole Normale Superieure, as well as in 
several of the other teachers' training schools in the 
Academy of Paris, but admission to these courses may 
be obtained only by special dispensation. 

Courses in educational theory are likewise few in the 
provincial universities. Six ^ of the fifteen other uni- 
versities announce courses in education, viz.: Besangon 
offers one course in psychology appHed to education, 
and another in practical pedagogy; Dijon and Toulouse 
give the work under ^'philosophy and pedagogy' '; 
Grenoble, Lille, and Lyon use the caption "science of 
education." What has been said of the general nature 
of the work at Paris is likewise true of that offered at the 
provincial universities. 

Despite the lack of theoretical courses in education in 
the French universities, there is a wide field for historical 
research which has scarcely been touched. We in this 
country know little about the historical development of 
French institutions. Most of our history of education 
has come to us from Germany by way of direct transla- 
tion of German treatises. Barnard's great contributions 

^ Data on this particular topic are those given in "TAnnuaire de 
Pinstruction publique" for 1913, the latest available information. 



EDUCATION 93 

to our knowledge in this field came from German sources. 
(It is interesting in passing to note that his promised 
volume on French educators was never written). Yet the 
first great university was founded in Paris; the most 
powerful teaching body the world has ever seen was or- 
ganized in Paris by Loyola; Ramus, Rollin, and RoUand 
d'Erceville were all important men in the development 
of education in France, yet one searches in vain through 
the index of the most comprehensive text in the history 
of education published in this country for even a mention 
of their names. Rashdall in his scholarly "Universities 
of Europe during the Middle Ages/^ and Denifle and 
Chatelain in their monumental " Chartularium universi- 
tatis Parisiensis," have set the standard in their contri- 
butions to early university history. For the ensuing 
six hundred years, save for accounts of the more famous 
educational theorists, the whole development of educa- 
tion in France is well-nigh inaccessible in English. This 
offers a great field for research. 

Paris is strikingly a city of libraries. Their number is 
legion, and includes almost every conceivable subject. 
Many of these libraries contain works bearing upon 
education in some of its phases. By far the most valu- 
able of the pedagogical libraries, and fortunately the 
one most readily accessible to the student, is the Bi- 
bliotheque de TEnseignement Public, at the Musee 
Pedagogique, 41 rue Gay-Lussac. Here one finds a 
collection of some 75,000 volumes, unfortunately not all 
catalogued in the most approved fashion. This, however, 
is one of the great educational libraries of the world, and 
every facility is afforded for research work; its collection 
of American school-texts of the mid-nineteenth century 
is surprisingly large. Other libraries may be consulted 
for special fields of educational study, notably the library 
of the Ministry of Commerce and Industry for all 



94 EDUCATION 

material relating to technical (i. e. commercial and in- 
dustrial) education. The serious and qualified student 
of educational problems will find every door open and 
every courtesy extended by the authorities of our sister 
republic. 



Engineering 



ENGINEERING' 

The teaching of the fundamental sciences of mathe- 
matics, mechanics, physics and chemistry, as well as the 
application of these sciences to the solution of engineer- 
ing problems, calls for clear thinking and for rational 
and logical mental processes. Should we not then turn 
to France, the land of clear thinking par excellence^ for 
illuminating and inspiring instruction in sciences, both 
pure and applied? The French mind, to which obscurity 
is as abhorrent as vacuum is to nature, is peculiarly 
fitted to grasp and to teach the physical laws of nature 
and their apphcation, and France has given to the world 
a rich galaxy of eminent scientific thinkers and dis- 
coverers. 

It will suffice for our purpose to name a few of the great 
French engineers whose achievements have made them 
famous. Such are Ferdinand de Lesseps, the builder 
of the Suez Canal; Eiffel, who conceived and constructed 
the tower that bears his name; Perronnet, Poncelet, 
Hennebique and Mesnager, civil engineers of world- 
wide reputation; Sauvage and Couche in railroad en- 
gineering; Sadi Carnot, the discoverer of some of the most 
fundamental laws of thermodynamics; fitienne Lenoir; 
Beau DE RocHAS and Fernand Forest, who by their 
pioneer work in the development of the internal combus- 
tion engine prepared the way for the automobile and the 

1 [Drafting Committee: Ira N. Hollis, Worcester Polytechnic In- 
stitute ; Henry M. Howe, Columbia University; Alex. C. Humphreys, 
Stevens Institute of Technology; Albert Sauveur, Harvard Univer- 
sity. — Ed.] 

97 



98 ENGINEERING 

aeroplane; Gramme, who developed the dynamo-electric 
machine, and took an important part in the discovery that 
dynamo machines are reversible, i.e., capable of being 
employed as motors; Baudot, the designer of a multiplex 
system, extensively used; Marcel Deprez, who was a 
pioneer in the electric transmission of power; Foucault, 
who first discovered the losses of power in dynamos due 
to eddy currents; Mascart; Joubert; Hospitalier; 
Andre Blondel and Maurice Le Blanc, all of whom made 
important contributions to electrical engineering science 
and standards; the illustrious Ampere and Coulomb, 
who, though generally classified as physicists, have power- 
fully contributed through their basic discoveries to the 
progress of applied electricity ; filie de Beaumont ; Combes ; 
Gallon; Hauy; Albert de Lapparent; Haton de la 
Goupilliere; de Launay; Daubree, all mining en- 
gineers or geologists who have contributed largely to 
engineering progress. 

In metallurgy may be mentioned Sainte-Claire 
Deville, whose laboratory experiments opened the way to 
much metallurgical progress; Reaumur, who discovered 
the process by which castings of cast-iron may be made 
malleable and which today is of great industrial import- 
ance; MoissAN, who in his electric furnace first succeeded 
in reducing oxides hitherto deemed unreducible, and 
produced a whole series of new carbides; Gruner, to 
whom we owe many of our scientific conceptions of the 
complex reactions of the iron blast furnace; Pierre Mar- 
tin, who first succeeded in manufacturing steel in an open- 
hearth furnace; Osmond, the father of metallography; 
Heroult, who (though ignorant of the work done at the 
time by the American metallurgist, Hall) invented the 
electrolytic method of extracting metallic aluminum 
from its ores, and whose electric furnaces are pla)dng 
an increasingly important part in the metallurgy of steel; 



ENGINEERING 99 

PouRCEL, who contributed so much to the early introduc- 
tion of the Bessemer process on the Continent, and was 
a pioneer in the manufacture of ferro-manganese; Henri 
Le Chatelier, eminent chemist and metallurgist, whose 
inventions of the thermo-electric pyrometer, and numer- 
ous other contributions, have made possible much im- 
portant progress in the art of treating metals; Schneider, 
of the Creusot Steel Works; Leon Guillet and George 
Charpy, productive workers of great talent. 

Several of the living engineers mentioned above are prof- 
essors in some of the French engineering schools (Le 
Chatelier, Mesnager, de Launay, Guillet, and 
others). 

Instruction. Applied science in its many ramifica- 
tions is taught in France in a large number of institutions. 
In Paris alone not less than fourteen well-known schools 
are devoted to technical teaching, namely: (i) Con- 
servatoire National des Arts et Metiers, (2) Ecole Natio- 
nale Superieure des Mines, (3) Ecole Nationale des Ponts 
et Chaussees, (4) Ecole Centrale des Arts et Manufac- 
tures, (5) ficole Professionnelle Superieure des Postes et 
Telegraphes, (6) Ecole Speciale des Travaux Publics, 
du Batiment et de I'lndustrie, (7) Ecole Municipale de 
Physique et de Chimie Industrielles, (8) Ecole Nationale 
des Arts et Metiers, (9) Ecole Superieure d'Electricite, 

(10) Ecole d'Electricite et de Mecanique Industrielles, 

(11) Ecole Pratique d'Electricite industrielle, (12) Ecole 
Breguet (electricite et mecanique), (13) ficole Speciale 
de Mecanique et d'Electricite, and (14) ficole Superieure 
d'Aeronautique et de Construction Mecanique. Im- 
portant schools of Business Administration, of Archi- 
tecture, of Agriculture, and of Military Engineering, 
are also located in Paris. 

Applied science is likewise part of the teaching of 
nearly all the provincial universities. These universities 



loo ENGINEERING 

are situated at Aix-Marseille, Besangon, Bordeaux, 
Caen, Clermont, Dijon, Grenoble, Lille, Lyon, Mont- 
pellier, Nancy, Poitiers, Rennes, and Toulouse. 

Confining our attention to the teaching of Engineering, 
the most important engineering schools of France are 
here briefly mentioned. It is believed that each of 
them will heartily co-operate in any effort tending to 
facilitate the enrollment of foreign students by remov- 
ing the obstacles which in the past have stood in the way. 
The entrance requirements for foreign students here 
mentioned are those in force before the War. It 
is not unlikely that, in some instances at least, they 
may be materially modified. 

Ecole Poly technique (Paris). This ancient and famous 
institution does not confer engineering degrees, but gives 
instruction preparatory only to professional studies in 
engineering or in military science. 

The fact that one hundred and twenty-three of its 
graduates have become members of the Institute of 
France testifies to the broadness and excellence of its 
teaching. Of these, eight have become members of 
the Academic Frangaise (the list includes de Freycinet, 
PoiNCARE, Marcel Prevost) ; ninety-six, members of the 
Academic des Sciences (including ARAGO,£lie de Beau- 
mont, Cauchy, Gay-Lussac, Dulong, A. C. Becquerel, 
H. Becquerel, Regnault, Le Chatelier, Michel 
Levy,de Lapparent); seven, members of the Academie 
des Sciences Morales et Politiques; nine, members of 
the Academie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres; and 
three, members of the Academie des Beaux Arts. Among 
other illustrious graduates of the ficole Polytechnique 
the following may be cited: Auguste Le Comte, Sadi- 
Carnot, Admiral Courbet, General de Mirlbel, Haton 
DE LA GoupiLLiERE. The School offers a two-year 
program including instruction in Calculus, Geometry, 



ENGINEERING loi 

Mechanics, Physics, Chemistry, Astronomy and Geology, 
History and Literature, PoHtical and Social Economy, 
Architecture and drawing. 

Foreign students are admitted to the School as day 
students only and after passing successfully a special 
entrance examination. Successful completion of the 
work generally admits students to such schools of applied 
science as the Ecole Nationale des Fonts et Chaussees, 
Genie Maritime, etc. Foreign students pay no tuition 
fees. 

Ecole Nationale superieure des Mines. The ficole des 
Mines is one of the oldest in the world, having been 
founded in 1783. Many of its graduates have become 
illustrious. The list includes Joseph Bertrand, Resal, 
Henri Poincare, Berthier, Cailletet, Rivot, Re- 
GNAULT, Delaunoy, Potier, Cornxj, Dufrenoy, Elie 
de Beaumont, Mallard, Marcel Bertrand, de Lap- 
parent, Combes, Gallon, Gruner, Paul Heroult, 
Sauvage, Couche, Le Chateller. Among the many 
Americans who have in the past studied at the Ecole 
des Mines, the names of Egleston, who later helped to 
found the School of Mines of Columbia University, 
and of Eckley B. Coxe, the eminent mining engineer, 
are conspicuous. 

Admission to the School is by competitive examina- 
tion in Algebra, Calculus, Trigonometry, Analytical 
Geometry (plane and solid). Descriptive Geometry, 
Mechanics, Physics and Chemistry. Students are 
also admitted as "auditeurs libres'* to some of the 
courses. 

The instruction covers a period of three years and 
includes courses in Mineralogy and Petrography 
(Grand jean), in Palaeontology (Painvin and Zeiller, 
both members of the Institute), Geology (Termier, mem- 
ber of the Institute, and De Launay), Mining (Lebreton), 



I02 ENGINEERING 

Metallurgy (Angles Dauriac), Analytical Chemistry 
(Chesneau, director of the School), Mechanics (Sauvage), 
Railroad Engineering (Legrain, General Manager of the 
State Railroads), Resistance of Materials (Humbert), 
Industrial Electricity (Lenard), Mining Laws (Aquillon), 
Industrial Economics (Pelletan). 

The Hbrary contains over 50,000 books, pamphlets 
or maps and receives over 300 periodical pubHcations. 
Its collections of mineralogy (over 30,000 specimens) ^ 
palaeontology, and geology are famous and occupy 50 
large rooms. Fully equipped laboratories for Chemistry, 
Electricity, Mechanics, Mineralogy and Petrography, 
Metallurgy, Physics, and Surveying are maintained. 

The degree conferred on foreign students is that of 
"Ingenieur Civil des Mines," or else a certificate of study. 
The tuition fee is 1000 francs per year. 

Ecole Nationale des Fonts et Chaussees (Paris). This 
important school was founded in 1747 and its reputa- 
tion is universal. Admission is by competitive exam- 
ination in Algebra, Trigonometry, Analytical Geometry 
(plane and solid). Descriptive Geometry, Mechanics, 
Physics, Chemistry, Free Hand Drawing. Students are 
also admitted as visitors to some of the courses. 

The School offers a two-year program including in- 
struction in AppHed Mechanics (Pigeaud, Mouret), 
Construction (Launay), Road Building (Limasset), 
Railroading (Fouan), AppHed Electricity (Guillebot de 
Nerville), Mineralogy and Geology (De Launay), 
Architecture (Bonnet), Law (Chareyre, Romieu), 
Materials of Construction and Reinforced Concrete 
(Mesnager), Metal Bridges (Resal), Masonry Bridges 
(Sejourne), Naval Works (de Joly), Internal Navi- 
gation (DusuzEAu), Steam Engines and other Thermal 
Engines (Walckenaer), Hydraulics (Imbeaux), Po- 
litical Economy (Colson). 




ENGINEERING 



ENGINEERING 103 

The School confers the degree of "Ingenieur des 
Constructions Civiles^' or a certificate of study. There 
is no tuition fee. 

Ecole d^ Application du Genie Maritime (Paris). Ad- 
mission to this School is by competitive examination, 
including Calculus, Descriptive Geometry, Mechanics, 
Drawing, Physics, and Chemistry. Properly qualified 
foreign students may be admitted without examination. 
Visitors ("auditeurs fibres") are also permitted to attend 
some of the courses. 

A two-year course is offered, consisting of winter ses- 
sions in Paris and of summer work in arsenals and ship 
yards. The instruction, conducted by officers of the 
Genie Maritime and by engineers of Naval Artillery, 
includes courses in Ship Construction, Armament and 
Protection, Appfied Mechanics, Steam Engines, Boilers, 
Metallurgy, Technology (Tools and Materials), Aero- 
nautics, Naval Architecture, Land Construction, Torpe- 
does, Administration and Bookkeeping, Submarines, 
Appfied Electricity, Resistance of Materials, Naval 
ArtiUery, Graphic Problems and Projects. 

The school confers the degree of "Ingenieur Civil des 
Constructions navales'^ or a certificate of study. The 
cost of instruction to foreign students is about 1800 
francs per year. 

£cole Superieure d^Electricite (Paris). Admission to 
this important School is by competitive examination, 
including Mathematics (Algebra, plane analytical 
Geometry, Calculus), general and appfied Mechanics, 
Physics, Chemistry, Electricity, and Resistance of 
Materials. Properly qualified students may be excused 
from the entrance examination. Visitors ("auditeurs 
fibres") are also admitted. The studies, which last one 
year, include instruction in Applied Electricity (con- 
struction, generation, transformation, transmission, 



104 ENGINEERING 

utilization, thermal and chemical application, tests and 
measurements), in Theoretical Electricity, and in Teleg- 
raphy and Telephony. Visits and projects are part of 
the work. The School also offers a three months' course 
in Wireless Telegraphy. 

The degree conferred is thatof "Ingenieurfilectricien." 
The tuition fee is looo francs for the regular course and 
750 francs for the course in Wireless Telegraphy. 

Ecole Centrale des Arts et Manufactures (Paris). Ad- 
mission to the School is by competitive examination 
in Mathematics, Physics, and Chemistry. It offers a 
three-year program, including instruction in Calculus, 
Descriptive Geometry, Mineralogy and Geology, Archi- 
tecture and Civil Construction, Hygiene, Drawing, 
Public Works, Mining Methods, Metallurgy (general 
and specific). Construction of Machinery, Mechanics 
(theoretical and applied). Industrial Application of 
Inorganic and Organic Chemistry, Railroading, Physics 
(general and industrial), Analytical Chemistry, Indus- 
trial Electricity, Resistance of Materials, Engineering of 
Construction, Thermal Engines, Industrial Law. 

The School confers the degree of "Ingenieur des Arts 
et Manufactures," or else a certificate of study. The 
tuition fee is 900 francs the first year and 1000 francs 
for each of the following years. 

Institut Chimique de VUniversite de Nancy (Nancy; 
Meurthe et Moselle). Students are admitted on the 
presentation of certificates from preparatory schools of 
good standing (lycees, high schools, etc.) or by examina- 
tion in mathematics, physics, chemistry, etc. Two 
years are devoted to the study of theoretical and practical 
chemistry and one year to specialized work. The degree 
of "Ingenieur Chimiste'' is conferred. The tuition is 
650 francs per year. 



Geography 




GEOGRAPHY 



Geography' 

The development of Geography as a university study 
is of about as recent a date in France as in other European 
countries. Cartography at home and exploration abroad 
have flourished longer. 

The maps of France, pubHshed on various scales and 
styles by the Service Geographique de TArmee and other 
official departments, are of unusual excellence; the 
contoured sheets for Algeria on a scale of 1:50,000 are 
admirable specimens of topographic art. But (as is 
generally the case) the topographers who have produced 
these fine maps have left to others the development of a 
scientific method of accurately and inteUigibly describ- 
ing in words the facts of form and distribution which 
maps portray graphically. A partial exception to this 
statement is found in General Berthaut's "Topologie" 
(1909-10), in which many beautiful examples of topo- 
graphic work are reproduced, but the text savors of an 
earHer century than the 20th. 

French explorers of oceans and continents have de- 
servedly gained renown for bringing to Hght the existence 
of previously unknown lands and waters; but, like 
most other explorers, those of France have not con- 
tributed greatly to the systematic aspects of modern 
geographical science. The great Societe de Geo- 
GRAPHiE of Paris gives opportunity for study in its 
extensive Hbrary, supports exploration with its funds, 
publishes the results in its journal, "La Geographie," 

1 [Drafting Committee: W. M. Davis, Harvard University; R. H. 
Whitbeck, University of Wisconsin. — Ed.] 

107 



io8 GEOGRAPHY 

and rewards them with its medals. But, like nearly all 
other large geographical societies, its activities are more 
associated with popularization than with research; 
and the same is true of several smaller geographical 
societies elsewhere in France. Certain societies of com- 
mercial geography have also been founded, but their 
publications seldom contain anything more than an 
elementary geographical basis for studies that are largely 
of a statistical or economical nature. 

The great compilers, Malte-Brun early in the 19th 
century and Reclus near its close, each produced a 
"Geographie universelle'' in many volumes that will 
endure as monuments to the authors' patience and eru- 
dition; but these works were completed before the 
philosophy of evolution, inorganic and organic, had 
given to geography its modern scientific spirit, and they 
no longer serve as models for geographic treatment. 

In more recent years the higher study of geography 
in France has advanced in two directions : first in phys- 
ical geography, under the inspiration of de la Noe 
and DE Margerie, whose "Formes du Terrain" (1888) 
revealed new lines of research in an old subject, and later 
under the leadership of the eminent geologist, de Lap- 
parent, whose "Legons de geographic physique" (1896) 
attracted renewed attention to the modern aspects of 
the study of land forms; secondly in descriptive geography, 
under the leadership of Vidal de la Blache, whose 
earlier training was in history. In the first of these direc- 
tions, Barre has prepared an excellent local work, "L'ar- 
chitecture du sol de la France" (1903), and de Martonne 
has produced a systematic work, "Traitede Geographie 
physique" (1907, 19 13), which is today recognized as 
of standard value. But it is in the second direction that 
geography has recently flourished in France; for, although 
its leader has now retired from teaching, nearly all the 



GEOGRAPHY 109 

more notable modern geographical studies in France 
are the work of his pupils, or of his pupils' pupils, a 
goodly number of whom have become professors of geog- 
raphy in French universities. Among the recent works 
thus and otherwise inspired the following deserve espe- 
cial mention: Schirmer, "Le Sahara'' (1893), Dele- 
BECQUE, "Les lacs frangais" (1898), Brunhes, "L'irri- 
gation" (1902), DE Martonne, *^La Valachie" (1902), 
Bernard and Lacroix, "L 'evolution du nomadisme en 
Algerie" (1906), Blanchard, "La Flandre" (1906), 
Vallaux, "La Basse-Bretagne" (1907), Vacher, 
"Le Berry" (1908), Passerat, "Les plaines du Poitou" 
(1909), Demangeon, "Le relief du Limousin" (1910), 
Levainville, "Rouen" (1913), Sorre, "Les Pyrenees 
mediterraneennes" (1913). The "Annales de Geo- 
graphic," founded in 1893 by Vidaldela Blache and 
still edited by him in collaboration with de Margerie 
and Gallois, is an important medium of scientific pub- 
lication; its "Bibliographic annuelle," compiled by 
Raveneau and many collaborators, is an indispensable 
aid in serious study. 

Instruction. The French School of Geography is 
today, since the retirement of its founder, chiefly in the 
hands of his former pupils who are now professors in 
various universities. While their work is sufficiently 
marked by individuality, it nevertheless bears the 
imprint of their master, whose attractive but not always 
specific style may be studied in his noted volume, "La 
France, Tableau geographique " (1903, 1908), prepared 
as an introduction to Lavisse's History of France. He 
has been engaged for several years past, in conjunction 
with a number of his disciples, on a regional geography 
of the world, the volumes of which are awaited with 
interest. 



no GEOGRAPHY 

The leading characteristic of this school is a devoted 
studiousness, the natural result of the severe discipline 
of the "agregation/V or competitive examination, held 
in Paris, and based on a specified course of advanced 
geographical study, which must be taken by all candi- 
dates for teaching positions in France and in which 
only as many candidates are passed as are needed to 
fill vacant positions. During the assiduous preparation 
for this examination and in the preparation of the thesis 
which accompanies it, every pertinent element is gathered 
from geology, geography, and biology, and above all 
from history, with the intent of finally combining all 
these elements in regional descriptions. The product 
of this intent is, in the opinion of some critics, too geol- 
ogical at its beginning, too historical at its end, and not 
systematic enough through much of its course to repre- 
sent the finest geographical ideal. But it is still an ad- 
mirable product, worthy of attentive examination by 
American students, even though its imitation in this 
country may be difficult because our historical records 
are for the most part so brief and scanty, — to say nothing 
of its being unnecessary because at present the demand 
for geographical scholarship is in most of our universi- 
ties so small. 

It is naturally in Paris and at the Sorhonne (as 
that part of the University of Paris is called which is 
directed by the Faculties of Letters and of Sciences) 
that the French school of Geography is best exemplified. 
Here the courses and laboratories in general geography, 
developed under the Faculty of Letters by Vidal de la 
Blache, and under the Faculty of Sciences by Velain 
(courses and laboratories which it is to be hoped will be 
united and administered under a single geographical 
institute), are now, since the retirement of their seniors, 
carried on by Gallois, Demangeon, de Martonne, 




GEOGRAPHY 



GEOGRAPHY iii 

and their associates. In more or less close association 
with the Sorbonne are various additional establish- 
ments: the College de France^ where Brunhes 
lectures on human geography; the Institut oceano- 
graphique, founded by the Prince of Monaco, where 
lectures and conferences are held; and other institutions 
where subjects allied to geography may be pursued. 
Inter-university excursions, ordinarily held in the 
spring, give practical but brief experience in field study. 
The fourteen provincial universities of France offer 
less expanded opportunity for geographical study than 
is found in Paris, yet in many of them certain lines of 
work are well developed and may be pursued to much 
advantage. Thus, Flahault has made a specialty of 
plant geography at Montpellier, and Blanchard of 
alpine geography at Grenoble. The situation of these 
universities necessarily exercises much influence over 
the subdivisions of geography which they can best 
illustrate. Thus, commercial and colonial geography 
have exceptional encouragement at Bordeaux; features 
of volcanic origin are best exemplified at Clermont- 
Ferrand in the classic region of Auvergne; unusually 
varied opportunity for the study of cuestas in their 
influence on population and history is afforded in the 
neighborhood of Nancy; coastal features of large va- 
riety and practical importance in maritime relations 
are found near Rennes. An advantage which students 
may enjoy at the smaller universities is the close personal 
association with their professors, which counts for so 
much in advanced work. 



Geology 



INCLUDING 



MINERALOGY, PETROLOGY, 
AND PALAEONTOLOGY 



Geology' 



The part which France has played in the long history 
of geological science is a particularly distinguished one. 
In the controversial period of rival schools of geology, 
which preceded that of careful observation, she was 
fortunate in not being drawn within the charmed circle 
of the followers of Werner at Freiberg, where the sedi- 
mentary origin of basalt was proclaimed and hotly 
defended. It was in France, through the work of 
GuETTARD and Demarest, that this colossal error, which 
held back for decades the development of the science, 
was finally overthrown. As regards the other dominant 
error which characterized eighteenth century geology — 
the elevation crater idea of the Prussian geologist von 
Buch — France was less fortunate, for one of her most 
briUiant geologists, fihe de Beaumont, fell under the 
spell of this delusion. 

When, with the dawn of the nineteenth century, geol- 
ogy developed as an observational science, largely in the 
fields of stratigraphy and palaeontology, the contribu- 
tions of French geologists were noteworthy. It is neces- 
sary only to mention the names of Cuvier, Lamarck, 
d'ARCHiAC, d'ORBiGNY, and Brongniart, to confirm 
this statement. Cuvier's famous "Discours sur les 
revolutions de la surface du globe et sur les changements 
qu^elles ont produits dans le regne animal,'' which ap- 
peared in 1822, supplies one of the great landmarks in 

^ [Drafting Committee: T. C. Chamberlin, University of Chicago; 
U. S. Grant, Northwestern University; W. H. Hobbs, University of 
Michigan. — Ed.] 

115 



ii6 GEOLOGY 

the development of the science. The foundations of the 
relatively modern science of physiographical geology had 
already been laid in the eighteenth century, through 
studies by Demarest in the valleys of the Auvergne of 
Central France, — studies which have been ably extended 
in our own day by de la Noe, de Margerie, and de 
Martonne. The brilliant de Beaumont, in collabo- 
ration with DuFRENOY, gave a great impetus to geological 
mapping, at the time in its infancy, by the preparation 
of the geological map of France begun in 1825. 

Earthquake study necessarily began with the collec- 
tion of facts connected with the great earthquakes of the 
past. These data, as assembled by Alexis Perrey of 
Dijon between the years 1841 and 1874, constitute a 
great reservoir from which all later investigations have 
drawn their supplies. Today the greatest systematizer 
in seismology and its leading authority is a Frenchman, 
Count DE MoNTESSUs DE Ballore. Within the field of 
oceanography, studies of the most fundamental character 
dealing with the deposits upon the sea bottom have been 
carried out by Thoulet. In the field of structural 
geology, it is today generally recognized that the key 
to the solution of that most complex problem, the struct- 
ure of the Alps, was supplied by Bertrand, upon the 
basis of studies made in the north of France. His other 
investigations covered a very wide field and were of 
prime importance. Experiments to reproduce rock 
structures in the laboratory have had their origin and 
development very largely in France; the leading part (if 
we except the most recent work by refined methods) 
having been taken by Daubree. A reservoir of data 
upon existing glaciers is the "Materiaux pour Fetude 
des glaciers, '^ by Dollfus-Ausset, which appeared in 
thirteen volumes between 1864 and 1870. The most 
noteworthy of general treatises upon geology, in the 



GEOLOGY 117 

French language, are those of de Lapparent (in five 
volumes) and of Haug (in two volumes). 

University Studies of Today. For students purposing 
to pursue geological studies in France, by far the best 
opportunities are offered in Paris by the University, 
the College de France, and the Ecole Superieure des 
Mines, supplemented as they are by the almost unrivaled 
collection of museums and libraries to be found in the 
city. Outside Paris, the best opportunities are realized 
at the provincial universities of Grenoble, Lille, and at 
Clermont, either because of exceptional strength of the 
geological staff in the University or because of special 
facilities for study in the field. Unlike other depart- 
ments, the laboratory of geologists is out of doors, and 
opportunities for the investigation of definite problems 
in the field may well be a determining factor in the 
choice of the university, provided other conditions are 
met. At Grenoble exceptional facilities are found for 
structural, stratigraphical, and palaeontological studies, 
and for those upon existing glaciers as well. The Uni- 
versity of Clermont is situated within a classic region of 
recent though extinct volcanoes, and offers numerous 
problems in vulcanology. The University of Lille is at 
the heart of the great coal mining region of the north of 
France, and special attention is there given to problems 
of economic geology, to structural geology, and, because 
of the preeminence of the head of the department in the 
field of the crystalline rocks, to pre-Cambrian geology 
as well. 

The attention which for the first time in recent years 
has been devoted to the geology of the desert areas makes 
it desirable to draw attention to the unique opportuni- 
ties off'ered by the University of Algiers for the study of 
such conditions. Situated on the borders of the greatest 



ii8 GEOLOGY 

of all deserts, and connected by railways with different 
sections of the desert area, a student may work under 
the guidance of specialists who have already acquired a 
wide reputation by their studies of arid conditions. 

Paris. At the University of Paris the work in geology 
is in charge of Emile Haug, whose major investigations 
have dealt principally with the great problems of sedi- 
mentation in connection with areas of denudation. His 
principal monograph upon this subject is "Les geosyn- 
clinaux et les aires continentales. Contributions a Tetude 
des transgressions et des regressions marines, " published 
in 1900. He has also contributed to the study of the 
great nappes of the Alps and his "Traite de geologie" 
(the second volume appeared in 191 1) is the most mod- 
ern of geological treatises printed in the French language. 
Physical geography is in charge of Emmanuel de Mar- 
tonne, well-known for his studies in the Carpathians and 
Roumania, and for his "Traite de geographie physique, '' 
which was pubHshed in 1909 and is the best general 
treatise upon the subject in any language. 

At the College de France, the teaching of geology is 
conducted by Lucien Cayeux, well-known for his studies 
upon the microscopical structure of sediments. 

At the ficole Superieure des Mines, geology is in 
charge of Pierre Termier, who is also the Chief Engineer 
of Mines and Director of the Service de la Carte Geolo- 
gique. Outside the special field of mining, Termier has 
acquired distinction from his investigation of the prob- 
lems of Alpine structure. 

Louis DE Launay, well-known for his studies of ground 
water and ore deposition, is in charge of geology at the 
ficole Nationale des Ponts et Chaussees. 

At the ficole des Hautes fitudes Scientifiques of the 
Institut Catholique, Jean BoussAC, known for his studies 
of Alpine structure, occupies the chair of geology. 

























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GEOLOGY 119 

A number of geologists of distinction, not connected 
directly with any of the French schools, are resident in 
Paris and actively engaged in geological studies; these in- 
clude Em. DE Margerie, former president of the Societe 
Geologique, translator of Suess' *^Das AntHtz der Erde," 
and possessing perhaps the widest knowledge of geological 
literature of any one now living; Alfred Lacroix, pro- 
fessor of Mineralogy at the Museum d'Histoire Naturelle, 
and one of the greatest authorities on volcanoes; Stanislas 
Meunier, in charge of geology at the same institution, 
known particularly for his studies upon meteorites; 
Charles Rabot, a leading authority upon glaciers and 
lately president of the International Commission on 
Glaciers, editor of ^^La Geographic"; Leon Carez, 
the principal collaborator in the French Geological 
Service; Commandant O. Barre, an authority on tec- 
tonic geology; and General Berthaut, author of a 
two-volume work of great value upon topography in 
relation to physiography. Some of these (such as 
Lacroix and Meunier) give courses of lectures open to 
students. 

Supplementary to the geological collections in labora- 
tories of the University and other higher institutions of 
learning, there are the great collections of the Museum 
d'Histoire Naturelle, situated in the Jardin des Plantes. 
Of libraries of special interest to geologists, one of the 
best is located in this museum, and in addition there 
are the large geological libraries of the Societe Geologique 
de France and that of the French Academy. 

The principal geological periodicals published in Paris 
are the "Bulletin" and "Memoires" of the Societe 
Geologique de France, and "Comptes rendus hebdoma- 
daires des seances de I'Academie des Sciences," "Annales 
des Mines," "Bulletin des Services de la Carte geolo- 
gique de la France et des Topographies souterraines," 



I20 GEOLOGY 

''Annales de Geographie/' "La Geographic," "Annales 
de rinstitut Oceanographique." 

The Provinces. As already stated, while undoubtedly 
the best opportunities for geological study are to be found 
in Paris, there are often special reasons why the work 
of a graduate student may best be carried on at one of 
the universities of the provinces, which offer a wide 
variety of geological problems in the rocks of their 
surroundings. Among professors in charge of the work 
in geology at the provincial universities are the follow- 
ing: Lille: Charles Barrois, a leading authority upon 
the geology of the pre-Cambrian rocks, and particu- 
larly those of Brittany; Grenoble: W. Kilian, an 
authority upon the stratigraphy and palaeontology of the 
Cretaceous formation; Dijon: Louis Collot; Mar- 
seille: Gaston Vasseur, whose field of study has been 
the Tertiary of Western France; Nancy (where there is 
a School of Geological Engineering) : Rene Nickles, an 
authority upon the geology of Southeastern Spain; 
Clermont-Ferrand: Ph. Glangeaud, whose special field 
has been the volcanic region of Central France; Lyon: 
Charles Deperet, an authority upon Miocene geology, 
with whom is associated Frederic Roman in the field of 
agricultural geology; Bordeaux: Emmanuel Fallot; 
Toulouse: Charles Jacob, in the field of Alpine geology 
and glacial geology; Caen: Alexandre Bigot, an authori- 
ty upon the crystalline rocks of Brittany; Poitiers: Jules 
Welsch, who has given much attention to the tectonic 
geology of Western France; Rennes: Jean Seunes; 
Besanqon: Eugene Fournler, tectonic geology, hydrology, 
and speleology; Montpellier: A. Delage. 

At the University of Algiers , where such unexcelled 
facihties are offered for the study of desert geology, 
there is a strong staff of speciaHsts in this field, and ex- 
ceptional opportunities are afforded for the study of 



GEOLOGY 121 

Arabic and for the investigation of economic problems 
connected with the exploitation of deserts. The head of 
the geological department, and Adjunct Director of the 
Service de la Carte geologique de TAlgerie, is Emile 
FiCHEUR. He is assisted by Arbel Brives, who is a 
collaborator upon the survey as well as a professor in 
the geological department. Georges Flamand occupies 
the chair of physical geography of the Sahara, and 
enjoys a wide reputation for his explorations in the 
desert. In addition the University of Algiers supports 
a professor of the geography of Africa in the person of 
Emile-Felix Gautier, deservedly well-known for many 
important works in this field. Inasmuch as the geology 
of deserts is a subject Hkely to occupy an important 
place in the discussions of geologists in the near future, 
the advantages of Algiers as a place of study may well 
be emphasized. 



Mineralogy and 
Petrology' 

In the fields of Mineralogy and Petrology, French 
scientists have made contributions of inestimable value, 
and in some parts of these fields they have opened the 
way and taken a predominant part in the work of de- 
tailed investigation as well as exploration. 

MINERALOGY 

Knowledge of minerals is based upon a study of them 
in crystal form; the science of crystals was founded and 
built in France; as truly stated by Mallard: "Crystal- 
lography was thus created as a whole by the genius of 
Hauy, and his successors have scarcely had to do more 
than perfect the details of his work. No other branch of 
human knowledge is, to the same extent, the work of one 
man." Later, DelafoSse and Bravais developed the 
theory of a mesh or space-lattice of physical units as the 
structure of crystals — a theory completely established, 
within the past two years, by means of studies with X- 
rays. Fizeau and Le Chatelier made numerous investi- 
gations of the expansion of crystals upon heating, some of 
which have had an important bearing upon questions of 
the condition of formation, especially of quartzose rocks. 

An excellent method of chemical analysis of silicate 
minerals was early developed by Ste.-Claire-Deville. 

^ [Drafting Committee: A. N. Winchell, University of Wisconsin. 
— Ed.] 

122 




MINERALOGY 



MINERALOGY 123 

Spectral analysis of zinc blende from the Pyrenees led 
BoiSBAUDRAN to the discovery of gallium. Radium was 
discovered by the Curies as a result of careful investi- 
gation of pitchblende and other uranium-bearing miner- 
als. Frtedel and Grand jean have recently studied the 
nature of the water in zeolites, and have shown that 
it can be expelled and reabsorbed or replaced by other 
liquids or gases without destroying or changing the 
nature of the crystal structure. 

The methods of synthetic mineralogy were developed 
in France. Fouque and Michel-Levy reproduced all 
the minerals of volcanic rocks, except quartz and ortho- 
clase, by means of crystallization from dry fusion. By 
the same process, Gaudin and Verneuil produced ruby 
and sapphire, the manufacture of which has now become 
an important industry. Fusion in the presence of min- 
eralizers is a method which has yielded important results 
in the hands of several experimenters, notably Deville, 
Hautefeuille, Bourgeois, Gorgeu, Fremy, and 
Ebelmen. Finally, several minerals have been produced 
in the presence of water (or water-vapor) heated in a 
sealed tube, by Daubree, Sarasin, and Frtedel. 

The minerals of metalliferous veins and ore deposits 
are of much practical importance; Beaumont was the 
first to present a complete and rational theory to explain 
the origin of such deposits; many of the classic experi- 
ments of Daubree were devised to shed light on the 
same problem. De Launay has continued this work 
and prepared scientific descriptions of the ores of the 
world. 



124 GEOLOGY 



PETROLOGY 

Rocks are composed of minerals; therefore a knowl- 
edge of minerals is essential to an understanding of rocks, 
and the science of mineralogy was necessarily developed 
before that of petrology. In rocks, minerals are usually 
present in very small crystals; therefore rocks are studied 
chiefly by microscopic methods. Fouque and Michel- 
Levy introduced in France these methods, which are 
based on optical properties first deduced by Fresnel. 
Des Cloizeaux applied the methods to the study of 
minerals as such, and thus supplied the fundamental 
data necessary for petrographic work. Michel-Levy 
and Lacroix continued the determination of data, de- 
veloping at the same time additional methods of using 
optical properties in identifying minerals. 

Fouque and Michel-Levy proposed a classification 
of igneous rocks, based on mineral composition and on 
texture, which is the foundation of the classification now 
in use in France, and has contributed much to classifi- 
cations in use in other countries. Michel-Levy empha- 
sized the importance of mineralizing agents in processes 
of differentiation as well as in those of contact metamor- 
phism. 

Lacroix has shown that contact exomorphism con- 
sists not only in physical changes, but also includes 
chemical transformations due to introduction of material 
of magmatic origin. He has also described evidence to 
show that granitic magmas may be changed to diorites, 
etc., by contact endomorphism. Lacroix has also 
written a monographic work on the "Mineralogy of 
France," in which he has emphasized the varying modes of 
occurrence and of alteration of minerals in order to fix 
the mode of origin and conditions of stability. In a similar 



PETROLOGY 125 

way he has studied the lavas of Mont Pelee from all points 
of view, in order to draw general conclusions concern- 
ing their origin. 

University Studies of Today. Paris, At the present 
time the leading mineralogist and petrologist in France 
is Alfred Lacroix, who succeeded des Cloizeaux as pro- 
fessor of mineralogy at the Museum d'Histoire Naturelle 
in 1893. He has published a five-volume work on '^La 
mineralogie de France,'' which is a standard treatise on 
the optical properties and modes of occurrence of min- 
erals; a volume on "Les enclaves des roches volcaniques;" 
two volumes on volcanic activity at Vesuvius and Mont 
Pelee; and numerous important studies of minerals, of 
contact metamorphism, of descriptive petrography, and 
of rock alteration. He offers courses of lectures on 
mineralogy; but the student prizes especially the oppor- 
tunity to study in his laboratories under his inspiring 
guidance. At the same institution Stanislas Meunier 
holds the chair of geology; he is the author of an impor- 
tant work on "Lesmethodes de synthese en mineralogie." 
At the University of Paris, Louis Gentil, who has 
described petrographically certain districts in Algeria, 
offers excellent courses in general petrography. 

At the College de France, the eminent crystallographer, 
F. Wallerant, is in charge of the work in mineralogy; 
he has published important contributions to crystal 
theory. Here, also, is L. Cayeux, who is an authority 
in the relatively neglected field of the petrography of 
sedimentary rocks; recently he has extended his studies 
to include all types of iron ores. 

At the ficole des Mines is the well known mineralogist, 
Termier, who has been a close student of individual 
minerals and of the crystalline schists of the Alps. L. 
De Launay offers courses at this school and also at the 



126 GEOLOGY 

ficole des Fonts et Chaussees; he has published several 
important volumes treating of the origin of the minerals 
in ore deposits. 

Le Chatelier, Urbain, and Matignon are primarily 
chemists, but they have made various contributions to 
mineralogy, especially from the chemical point of view. 
Le Chatelier and Urbain are at the University of 
Paris; Matignon is at the College de France. 

Outside of Paris. One of the most prominent mineral- 
ogists is G. Friedel at the ficole des Mines of Saint 
fitienne at Lyon, who has done notable experimental 
work with the zeolites, and has published works on 
crystallography. At the University of Montpellier, miner- 
alogy is in charge of Curie, who studied the eruptive 
rocks of Algeria, and has been associated in some work 
on piezo-electricity with the discoverer of radium. At 
the University of Nancy, Thoulet has made studies of 
the physical and chemical properties of microscopic 
minerals. Joseph Caralp is professor of mineralogy at 
the University of Toul|mse. At Nancy, the Institute of 
Geology trains mining engineers. 

From a petrographic point of view the University of 
Lille is the most important institution outside of Paris. 
It is here that Barrois is professor of geology, and 
Offret professor of mineralogy. Barrois has described 
in detail the contact metamorphism of sandstones, 
shales, and limestones, and Offret has made petrographic 
studies of certain rocks and minerals. 




geology: palaeontology 



PALAEONTOLOGY' 

In the history of palaeontology there is no nation so 
rich in memories as France, none held in so great regard 
by students — in almost reverential regard by the 
student of extinct vertebrates especially, for there his 
science was born a century ago, and Cuvier was its 
father. The world's greatest scientist of his time, and 
one of the greatest naturalists of all time, Cuvier first 
taught the real meaning of fossils, and especially verte- 
brate fossils. With him began a new epoch in all palaeon- 
tology, one based upon zoology; and fossils ceased to be 
mere curiosities in the rocks, or the mere tools of geology. 

The great Sir Richard Owen of England was his stu- 
dent, but all felt the effects of Cuvier 's brilliant mind. 
De Blainville, Deslongchamps, Filhol, Gervais, 
Milne-Edwards, Sauvage, Lartet, and Gaudry are 
among the many Frenchmen of the nineteenth century 
who won enduring fame wherever vertebrate palaeon- 
tology is studied; and among those of the present day, 
Deperet, Boule, Priem, Leriche, and Thevenin, are 
some of those whose reputations have extended world- 
wide. 

Nor is invertebrate palaeontology any less indebted to 
France of the nineteenth, and even the eighteenth 
centuries. Beginning with the famous Butfon, who for 
more than a century was a delight to children every- 
where, the most noted of all, perhaps, though not ex- 
clusively a palaeontologist, was Lamarck, who found in 

1 [Drafting Committee: S. W. Williston, University of Chicago. — 
Ed.] 

127 



128 GEOLOGY 

the "animaux sans vertebres," both living and fossil, 
the foundations for his famous theories of development, 
theories which are even more vigorously discussed today 
than when they were first offered. Suffice it to mention 
the names of only a few that every student of the science 
knows: Barrande, Brongniart, Deshayes, A. Milne- 
Edwards, PoMEL, Lemoine, and especially d'ORBiGNY. 
And in paleobotany the indebtedness of the world is 
equally great, perhaps greater; for Adolphe Brongniart 
has been rightly called the father of the science. And what 
naturalist has not heard of Saporta? And there have 
been and are many others. 

One is safe in saying, on a survey of the great names of 
palaeontology, that no nation of the nineteenth century 
did as much to advance the science of palaeontology; none 
has a greater list of eminent scientific names in palaeon- 
tology. 

Instruction. What has France to offer the student of 
palaeontology today? First of all, a rich and inspiring 
memory of the great scientific men of the past. And, 
secondly, the rich collections that have served these men 
in their investigations, and the great museums and able 
teachers of today. 

These collections are scattered more or less throughout 
the institutions of France. But (it goes without saying) 
the most extensive and important of all are in Paris, 
and especially in the great Natural History Museum, 
where American scientists have spent very pleasurable 
and fruitful days. One of the divisions of its vast collec- 
tions is formed by palaeontology ("Galerie d'anatomie 
comparee, d'anthropologie, et de paleontologie," founded 
by Cuvier). The library contains 250,000 volumes, and, 
besides the lecture courses, there are monthly meetings 
of the scholars pursuing research there. At the Ecole 



PALAEONTOLOGY 129 

Nationale Superieure des Mines also, there is a valuable 
and noted collection in palaeontology. The Universities 
of Caen, Grenoble, and Lille, also have special collections 
in palaeontology. 

One of the few periodicals anywhere devoted to palaeon- 
tology is the Annales de Paleontologie, published for the 
past ten years at Paris under the direction of Boule. 

Palaeontology cannot be pursued as an isolated science. 
Fossils are merely animals and plants that have been 
dead longer than others, as Huxley once said, and must 
be studied in connection with living organisms and with 
geology. The student should therefore seek those uni- 
versities where geology, and especially historical geology, 
is given much attention, and where also botany and 
zoology in all their branches are well represented. Per- 
haps there is no university in France, and few if any in 
all Europe, where all these requirements are better met 
than in Paris. Of the eighteen chairs in the Natural 
Sciences at the Museum of Natural History, one is as- 
signed to Palaeontology; its present incumbent is Boule, 
well known for his work in anthropology and palaeontology, 
more especially vertebrate palaeontology. In the Uni- 
versity, under the Faculty of Sciences, a course in palaeon- 
tology is given byTHEVENiN, author of notable works in 
both invertebrate and vertebrate palaeontology, but 
especially the latter. 

There are other universities in France where palaeon- 
tology is taught as a distinct science, and where the 
student may find better conditions for special studies; 
in the final work it is often the teacher who counts more 
than anything else. Courses in palaeontology are given 
at Caen by Bigot, at Grenoble by Kilian, and at Lille 
by Bertrand. But there is no place, we believe, where 
he will find greater encouragement in his early studies 
than Paris. 



I30 GEOLOGY 

From there he will easily find opportunity to inspect 
the institutions and museums of other cities, and to visit 
the numerous localities in France where the deposits of 
prehistoric times are so especially abundant and cele- 
brated. In vertebrate palaeontology many famous fossils 
have been described from the Carboniferous and Lower 
Permian rocks of Autun, the Jurassic and Cretaceous of 
northern France, to the Eocene of Paris, Rheims, Aix, 
Soissons, the famous Oligocene of Quercy, the Miocene of 
theDept. Allier, St.-Gerand-le-Puy, Soissons, and elsewhere. 
One need not add that the Paris Basin, of early Cenozoic 
age, was first made famous by Cuvier. In Anthropology 
no name is more eminent perhaps than that of Boucher 
DE Perthes, who first really demonstrated the existence 
of fossil man. And the names of Quatrefages, Lartet, 
Serres, and Topinard, are but little less so. But at 
this point we enter a field more fully described already 
in the Chapter on Anthropology. 



History 



History 



American students do not need to be reminded at 
length of the nature and extent of the contribution of 
France to the modern study of history. To the age of 
erudition France contributed the labors of the great 
Benedictines and of pre-eminent individuals of the type 
of Du Cange, Cujas, Scaliger, and Casaubon. In 
the eighteenth century it took the lead in the application 
of general ideas to history in the works of Montesquieu 
and Voltaire. A century later it had its brilliant 
group of literary historians, represented by Renan, 
Taine, and Michelet. It founded Egyptology, and pro- 
duced the greatest of recent mediaevalists in Leopold 
Delisle. It has taken a notable part in the develop- 
ment of the sciences auxiliary to history, in the pubHca- 
tion of great collections of sources, and in the main- 
tenance of schools and the encouragement of explora- 
tion in the remoter portions of the earth. At the same 
time, amid the vast accumulations of historical detail, 
French historians have not lost their sense of proportion 
or their interest in the larger aspects of history; without 
sacrificing thoroughness of research or finish of work- 
manship, they have also preserved qualities of clearness, 
order, and literary skill which are characteristically French. 

Fields of Instruction. French universities offer a 
wide range of instruction in the history of every period 

^ [Drafting Committee: C. H. Haskins, Harvard University; 
J. A. James, Northwestern University; A. C. McLaughlin, University 
of Chicago; D. C. Munro, Princeton University; J. T. Shotwell, 
Columbia University. — Ed.] 

133 



134 HISTORY 

and of most parts of the world, as well as in a large 
number of related fields. History is there conceived 
in a broad and liberal spirit, with no exaggerated em- 
phasis upon political details or special "interpretations/' 
Less attention than is usually the case in the United 
States is given to economics and political science and 
to their relations to history, the instruction in these 
subjects being confined for the most part to the faculties 
of law. Legal history, however, receives more emphasis 
in France than with us, and law professors (such as 
FouRNiER, GiRARD, Caillemer, and others) have much 
to offer to students of history. Certain other aspects of 
history receive their due more fully in French than in 
American universities, or, in some cases, than anywhere 
else. This is notably true of geography, which in the 
French programs is brought into a close and at times 
even artificial connection with history; of archaeology 
and the history of art, studied in the midst of a great 
wealth of illustrative material at Paris; and of the history 
of religions, represented at the College de France by Loisy, 
and at the Ecole des Hautes Etudes by a faculty of 
seventeen, unequalled in number or quality at any other 
center of learning in the world. Church history in the 
state universities is taught only as a part of general 
history and the history of religions; but courses of 4:he 
more conventional type are given in the private facul- 
ties of theology, both CathoHc and Protestant. 

In Ancient History, Paris has Jullian, whose 
"Histoire de la Gaule'' is a synthesis of a vast number 
of special studies in the field of history, philology, and 
archaeology; Bouche-Leclerc, whose manual of 
Roman institutions has served a generation of scholars; 
Block, Glotz (on Greek law), Grebaut; Gsell, the 
historian of Domitian and of Northern Africa; in archaeol- 
ogy and epigraphy, Babelon, Collignon, Foucart, 



HISTORY- 135 

Haussoullier, Heron de Villefosse, Holleaux, and 
Cagnat; and a number of scholars in the fields of Semitic 
history, ancient religion, and early Christianity. In the 
provincial universities, ancient history is represented by 
Radet at Bordeaux, Besnier at Caen, Homo at Lyon, 
JouGUET at Lille, Laurent at Nancy, Clerc at Aix, 
and Lecrivain at Toulouse. 

In the History of the Middle Ages, the French uni- 
versities are excellently equipped. At Paris one may 
study under Bemont, editor of the "Revue Historique'' 
and an admirable teacher, who has long been one of the 
world's leaders in the study of English history; Diehl, 
the eminent writer on Byzantine history and Byzantine 
art; Ferdinand Lot, whose studies have remade a con- 
siderable portion of French history in the period of the 
Carolingians and their immediate successors; Poupardin 
and Thevenin on the early Middle Ages; Pfister 
and Jordan on the later period; and Flachou the history 
of institutions. All the courses of the Ecole des Chartes 
are of interest to the mediaevalist, notably the work 
of its learned and helpful director, Maurice Prou. On 
the side of art and archaeology, the supreme achievements 
of mediaeval France can be studied under Enlart, 
author of the indispensable "Manuel d'archeologie 
frangaise," and Male, the authority on mediaeval sculp- 
ture. The mediae valists of the provincial universities 
include Halphen and Fliche at Bordeaux; Prentout 
at Caen; Guiraxjd at Besangon; Stoiiff at Dijon; 
Brehier at Clermont; Gay at Lille; Kleinclausz at 
Lyon; Parisot at Nancy; See at Rennes; Calmette 
and Galabert at Toulouse. 

In Modern History, perhaps the most distinguished 
French professor in active service (Lavisse having now 
retired) is Aulard, who through his own work and that 
of his disciples has remade the history of the French 



136 HISTORY 

Revolution. Others of note at Paris are Bourgeois, 
the historian of diplomacy, Denis for the nineteenth 
century, and Seignobos for historical method and 
general topics. More special courses are offered by 
Bernard, Block, Cultru, Debidour, Revon, and 
Reuss, and work in diplomatic history is given by 
Bourgeois and others at the Ecole des Sciences Poli- 
tiques. In provincial universities there should be men- 
tioned Hauser and Febvre at Dijon; Boissonnade and 
Carre at Poitiers; Desdevises du Dezert at Clermont; 
Blanchard at Grenoble; Gapearel at Aix; Mathiez at 
Besangon; Weill at Caen; Marie jol and Waddington 
at Lyon; Sagnac and St. Leger at Lille; Parisot at 
Nancy; Gachon and Bourrilly at Montpellier; Dumas 
at Toulouse; and Courteault at Bordeaux. 

Institutions. The natural center for historical stu- 
dents is the Faculty of Letters at Paris, generally known 
as the Sorbonne, with which the courses of the Ecole 
Normale (formerly reserved exclusively for its own 
students) are now merged. Historical instruction is 
given by formal lectures (open to the pubHc, and serving 
as excellent examples of the art of presentation); by 
private courses and discussions; and by exercises for 
the training of future teachers. 

To many, the opportunities of the Sorbonne, with 
its nineteen lecturers on history, will appear sufficient. 
American students, however, accustomed to the com- 
parative simplicity and centralization of university 
organization in the United States, need to have their at- 
tention directed to the great number of special schools 
and institutes outside of the central faculties of letters, 
science, law, and medicine. Those most closely con- 
nected with the study of history are the College de 
France, which maintains important courses of lectures 



HISTORY 137 

in convenient proximity to the Sorbonne; the ficole 
Coloniale; the Ecole d'Anthropologie; the Ecole du 
Louvre; the Institut Cathohque de Paris; the Ecole 
Pratique des Hautes fitudes; the ficole des Chartes; 
and the Ecole Libre des Sciences Politiques. For the 
majority of students the three last-named are the most 
important. 

The historical sections of the ficole des Hautes fitudes, 
now housed in the buildings of the Sorbonne, offer 
advanced instruction in the form of a wide variety of 
seminary and special courses. The work is open to all, 
without distinction of age, degree, or nationahty, who 
are wilHng to take active part in the exercises and can 
satisfy the instructor of their competence. Beyond this 
there are no conditions as to admission and no restric- 
tions on the number and choice of courses. There is 
no fixed curriculum; those who have been in attend- 
ance three years and present a satisfactory thesis receive 
a diploma but no degree. The high quality of the theses 
is seen in the imposing "Bibliotheque de I'ficole des 
Hautes Etudes," a series of historical and philological 
monographs which comprises more than two hundred 
volumes. 

The ficole des Chartes is a special school for the train- 
ing of archivists and librarians for the public service. 
It embraces the whole period of French history down 
to 1789, with special emphasis upon the Middle Ages. 
It offers instruction in palaeography, diplomatics, 
archaeology, Romance philology, history of French 
law and institutions, sources of French history, and 
organization of hbraries and archives. The curriculum 
covers three years, and the number of regular pupils 
is limited, but qualified outsiders are admitted to the 
courses. The school has a long and honorable tradition 
in the history of French scholarship and has served as a 



138 HISTORY 

model for similar institutions in Vienna and Florence. 
Its alumni publish an important historical journal, the 
^'Bibliotheque de FEcole des Chartes." 

The ficole Libre des Sciences Politiques is a private 
institution, occupying quarters in the Rue St. Guil- 
laume, about fifteen minutes' walk from the Sorbonne. 
It was established in 1871, primarily for the purpose 
of fitting young men for the higher branches of the civil 
service, and its organization and character are deter- 
mined by the examinations of the various government 
departments for which it prepares. Economics and 
political science naturally predominate, but attention 
is given to recent history, especially on the diplomatic 
and constitutional sides. The standing of the school 
is indicated by the names of its successive directors, 
BouTMY, Anatole Leroy-Beaulieu, and d'Eichthal, 
and by its publication, now known as the ^^ Revue des 
Sciences Politiques.'' 

Libraries J Archives, and Museums, The historical 
resources of Paris are greatly increased by the Biblio- 
theque Nationale and the various archives and museums. 
The Bibliotheque Nationale has the largest body of 
printed books in the world, and unrivalled collections of 
manuscripts and maps. Of the various depositories of 
unpublished documents, the most important for the 
American student are the Archives Nationales, under 
the enHghtened direction of Charles V. Langlois, the 
Archives des Affaires Etrangeres, and the Archives de 
la Marine. The Carnegie Institution of Washington 
has nearly completed an elaborate guide to the mate- 
rials for American history in these and other French 
collections. For daily use the library of the Sorbonne 
is well equipped and well administered, with the library 
of Ste.-Genevieve close at hand; and the special schools 



HISTORY 139 

also have useful libraries of reference. Paris is especially 
rich in museums of historical interest, notably the 
unique riches of the Louvre, the Musee de Cluny, the 
museum of Comparative Sculpture at the Trocadero, 
and the Musee Carnavalet, where the history of Paris 
from the earliest times is unrolled before the visitor. 
Finally, Paris itself is full of history, from the baths of 
the Emperor Julian to the memorials of the present war, 
and constitutes an unfailing source of inspiration to the 
intelligent student. 

Provincial Universities. The provincial universities 
naturally offer fewer opportunities than Paris, but their 
faculties comprise eminent scholars and teachers, com- 
petent in many cases to direct work in important his- 
torical fields outside of the history of France. Several 
of these universities have special chairs of local or regional 
history, and they all afford an excellent introduction to 
French Hf e and thought. 

On the whole it is the advanced student of history, 
and not the beginner, who will derive most advantage 
from a sojourn in France, and especially in Paris. The 
immature youth, who has not yet secured a good grasp 
of the essential facts of history, who has not received 
some substantial training in investigation, and has not 
some clear ideas concerning the nature of historical 
study and the reasons why he is pursuing it — a man 
of this sort is ill prepared to work wisely amid the mul- 
tiplicity of special courses and the manifold distractions 
of the French capital. Thanks to the rapid development 
of American universities in the past thirty years, it is 
no longer necessary to cross the Atlantic in order to begin 
one's historical apprenticeship, or even, in some lines, 
in order satisfactorily to complete it; and there can be 



I40 HISTORY 

no question that the proportion of those who pursue their 
entire graduate course abroad has much decreased. Their 
place is being taken by a growing number of mature 
students — professors on leave, traveling fellows, newly- 
made doctors, and others — who desire to continue work 
already well begun here. During their residence abroad 
these men will no doubt increase their stock of historical 
information and learn valuable lessons in historical 
method. But their greatest profit will come from access 
to great collections of historical material, from the stimulus 
of contact with new teachers and new ideas, and from 
first-hand knowledge of the monuments of the European 
past and the life of the European present. To such 
students France offers a warm welcome and a wide 
opportunity. 



Law 








JEAN DOMAT (1625-1696) 



Law 



The learned and systematic study of law, though 
never entirely broken off in the Middle Ages, begins 
virtually for the modern world with the revival of the 
study of Roman Law under Irnerius at the University 
of Bologna, in the second half of the looos A. D. From 
Italy germinated the subsequent growth of legal science 
in other countries. After four centuries, when the 
schools of the Glossators and the Commentators had 
successively risen and fallen in that country, the primacy 
in legal studies passed to France, which gave to the 
brilliant Italian Humanist, Alciat, a home at Avignon, 
in 1 518, and afterwards at Bourges. " Jurisprudentia 
romana," said the Englishman Duck in 1650, "si apud 
alias gentes extincta esset, apud solos Gallos reperiri 
posset." The "mos Gallicus" had become the fashion 
in the juristic world; and for two centuries France 
held this European primacy, under Cujas, Doneau, 
BAUDOinN, DuMOULiN, Brisson, Douaren, Godefroi, 
and HoTMAN. By that time legal science had become 
more nationalized. Every country of Western Europe 
was developing its jurists. 

In the seventeenth and the eighteenth centuries 
France's great task was the complex one of consolidating 
and nationahzing its own composite body of law. The 
labors of Domat, d'Aguesseau, Lamoignon, Colbert, 
PoTHiER, and others of that period, and the commercial 

^ [Drafting Committee: J. H. Beale, Harvard University; L. B. 
Register, University of Pennsylvania; Munroe Smith, Columbia Uni- 
versity; J. H. WiGMORE, Northwestern University. — Ed.] 

143 



144 LAW 

and procedural legislation under Louis XIV, prepared 
the way for the grand results of the Napoleonic codifi- 
cation; and the political philosophies of Montesquieu 
and Rousseau initiated a world-influence which has not 
yet ceased. . 

The promulgation of the Napoleonic Codes (Civil, 
Penal, Commercial, Criminal, Procedural) between 1804 
and 1 810, was the greatest legal fact of the first half 
of the nineteenth century. These Codes represented 
the legal side of the vast social and political revolution 
of ideas in the Western world; and they belted the globe 
with their influence. Not only many European countries, 
but almost all the Latin-American States, used the 
Codes in framing their own legislation. In the stimulus 
given by them indirectly in many departments of law, 
the Napoleonic Codes continued to be dominant legal 
factors until the last quarter of the nineteenth century. 
The method of textual commentary, based on the fixed 
categories of the Codes, absorbed most of the energies 
of French jurists during the first three quarters of the 
century ; and these Commentaries are still in common use 
even in foreign States (like Latin America, Louisiana, 
and Quebec) which had based their legislation on the 
French Code. 

But changed social and poHtical conditions raised 
new problems and shifted the emphasis laid on older and 
persistent needs. The spread of the Historical School 
(championed from Germany by Savigny in the second 
quarter of the century) and the interest in historical and 
comparative studies created by Sir Henry Maine, Fustel 
DE CouLANGES, and Albert Post; the expanding claims of 
philology, archaeology, psychology, anthropology, and 
other sciences; the development of social philosophies in 
France and elsewhere; the growth of commercial, indus- 
trial, and maritime interests; and the increased attention 



LAW 145 

paid to international law and administrative law — all 
these influences helped to open new fields of investiga- 
tion outside of the Civil Code. 

With this shifting of emphasis, the last quarter of the 
century began to see active attention paid to the other 
and now dominant fields of legal interest. During the 
last forty or fifty years, and increasingly so in that period, 
every department of the world's legal thought has been 
represented in France by master minds in the university 
chairs and by treatises embodying the most approved 
methods and original results in legal research. 

In Latin America and in some European countries 
(such as Belgium, Greece, and Roumania), the study of 
the French Codes is the study of their source-law. But 
for American students, no country's law, except that of 
England, presents such a direct reason for pursuing its 
advanced study abroad. Technical law is essentially 
local; its materials are largely the legislation ^nd practice 
of each country. In this respect, legal science differs 
from (let us say) mathematics or zoology. 

Nevertheless, law has its universal aspects, and they 
are growing with each decade. Among the important 
topics which thus have an extra-national value and 
interest for the legal scholar are Roman Law, Compara- 
tive Law and Legislation, Legal History, Philosophy oj 
Law, Constitutional and Administrative Law, Interna- 
tional Law, Criminology and Criminal Law. 

In all of these fields, France offers interesting and 
valuable opportunities for university study under the 
most accompUshed masters. 

But before noting the instruction offered in these 
particular subjects, a few words may be offered regard- 
ing some other features of French law interesting to 
the American lawyer. 



146 LAW 

One of these is the splendid professional tradition 
dominant in French courts of justice.^ The position of 
the advocate, in courage, independence, professional 
privilege, and fidelity to his client, is comparable only 
to that of our own professional predecessors in England, 
Ireland, Scotland, and our own country. The judges, 
having come up to the Bench from the Bar, as in England 
and America, have shared this spirit of professional 
independence. No other country is as notable as 
France in this common trait. Four times in French 
legal history has the entire Bar resigned its functions, 
and left the courts without lawyers, rather than submit 
to the arbitrary dictation of princes and politicians. The 
glorious incidents that are treasured in our professional 
annals find their parallels in all periods of the French Bar. 
If we are proud for this reason of the names of Coke, of 
Mansfield, of Erskine, of Brougham, of Denman, of Otis, 
of Hamilton, of Henry, of Choate, France too has its tradi- 
tions, — of Talon, exiled by the crafty Cardinal Mazarin 
for resisting an unjust decree; of Servin, who fell dead 
while uttering a similar protest in the presence of Cardinal 
Richelieu and Louis XIII; of EHe de Beaumont, whose 
memoir against the unjust execution of Calas-was read 
throughout Europe and led to Voltaire's famous diatribe 
against the criminal law; of Bellart, who defended many of 
the victims of the Terror, before the most bloodthirsty 
Tribunal the world has ever seen; of Malesherbes, who 
dared to act as counsel for the unfortunate Louis XVI be- 
fore the Convention, and himself met his client's fate at the 
guillotine two years later; of Bonnet, who defied Napoleon 
in defending General Moreau ; of Berryer, who defended the 

1 As far back as Juvenal's day, Gaul was famous throughout the 
Empire for its lawyers: '' Gallia causidicos docuit facunda Britannos" 
(Satire xv, 1. in) ; " Accipiat te Gallia vel potius nutricula causidicorum 
Africa, si placuit mercedem imponere linguae" (id. vii, 1. 147). 



LAW 147 

future Napoleon III on a charge of treason against Louis 
Philippe; and of Captain Dreyfus' courageous counsel, 
Labori, whose recent death the two RepubUcs lament. 
These traditions, continuous over five centuries, are not 
without meaning to the American student of law. They 
impress themselves on the whole system of law and justice. 
A country which possesses and prizes such traditions of the 
Bar is one which offers the Anglo-American student an in- 
spiration congenial and fruitful to his professional studies. 
Another feature worth recaUing — intangible, per- 
haps, but real — is the rich variety of legal reminiscences 
that meet the visitor at every spot in France, and help 
to arouse interest in the history and romance of the law. 
Every epoch of law here purveys for him something of 
its sentiment. In Paris, he may linger before the veritable 
pillar of Hammurabi's Code, four thousand years old. 
In the South and in the museums and libraries of Paris 
he may trace, in manuscripts and monuments, the vast 
influx, in a later epoch, of the great system of Roman 
law, as it spread over Celtic Gaul. In the next great 
epoch, the revival of Roman law a thousand years later, 
he finds everywhere, south of the Loire, the reminiscences 
of the world-jurists of the day, — at Toulouse, where 
Coras lectured to 4000 hearers; at Avignon and at 
Valence, where Alciat brought the new law-learning from 
Italy four centuries ago; and at Bourges, where Cujas 
taught, at whose renowned name (Hallam tells us) the 
law students of Germany were accustomed to take off 
their hats; and where also the great Hotman lectured, 
who once said that our Littleton's classical treatise on 
"Tenures" was "incondite, absurde, et inconcinne 
scriptum," and was thereupon pilloried by our patriotic, 
irascible Coke ("Stultum est absurdas opiniones refel- 
lere.") In Normandy, at Rouen, he may enter the 
superb Court House, the oldest building in Europe (now 



148 LAW 

that Westminster Hall is deserted by the judges) where 
justice has been dispensed continually since its erection; 
and at Caen, the home of WiUiam the Conqueror, he 
may see the manuscript of the Custom of Normandy, 
of which English law for a time was a branch only. In 
Brittany, at Treguier, he may pay homage at the shrine 
of Yves, the patron saint of our profession, the only 
lawyer ever canonized ("Advocatus sed non latro, res 
miranda populo"); and at Rennes, for modern flavor, 
he may visit the court-room where the second trial of 
Captain Dreyfus took place, the world's most famous 
trial for half a century past. At Bordeaux, he may see 
the home and the statue of Montesquieu, whose philoso- 
phy of law and government is still embodied in the 
American Constitution; and at Toulouse, he finds, Sir 
Thomas Smith composed his ^Commonwealth of Eng- 
land,'' by two centuries a precursor of Sir William 
Blackstone's "Commentaries." At St. Omer, where the 
great College of the Jesuits once flourished, he comes 
upon the traces of our famous Irish advocate and cross- 
examiner, Daniel O'Connell, who was there educated. 
At Bourges, Scotch lawyers once studied. At Clermont, 
he finds the birthplace of Domat, whose works are still 
cited by our Supreme Court of Louisiana. — And so he 
may continue, marking ofl in his pilgrimage at every 
spot some significant event or personage that has con- 
tributed to the world's movement inlaw. 

This "sentimental journey," it is true, may not 
directly assist his technical proficiency; and it may not 
appeal to all temperaments. But for the American stu- 
dent abroad one of the greatest gains must always be 
the sense of union with the notable events and persons 
of the past in his chosen field. And the profession of the 
law in America needs to become less insular and less 
narrow in its outlook on the present, and more aware of 



LAW 149 

the continuity of all legal traditions and knowledge. 
The future American jurist who spends a time in France 
may be assured of finding there the most varied interest, 
and the most lasting inspiration for the broadening and 
deepening of his professional studies. 

Instruction in the Universities. It remains to sum- 
marize the specific resources for university instructi9n 
in the chief subjects of general interest. 

Roman Law, The great tradition of Ortolan's name, 
whose treatise first appeared in 1827 ("Legislation 
romaine; explication historique des Instituts de Jus- 
tinien"; 12th ed., 3 vols., 1883), is worthily maintained 
by a group of distinguished scholars, representing every 
field of Roman law and the most modern methods of 
archaeological and philological research. Among them 
may be named these: P. F. Girard (Paris), the veteran 
master, one of the two or three Hving scholars who re- 
ceive the world's homage in this field; his '^Textes de 
droit romain'* and "Manuel elementaire de droit 
romain" are handbooks in many countries; Appleton 
(Lyon), whose principal work is "La propriete preto- 
rienne" (2 vols., 1889); Cuq (Paris), author of "Les in- 
stitutions juridiques des Romains" (2 vols., 1902-1907), 
who lectures on Roman legal history; Jobbe-Duval 
(Paris), author of "Etudes sur Thistoire de la procedure 
chez les Romains'' (1896), and of essays on the history 
of Continental procedure, who lectures on the Digest 
(or Pandects, as the current French usage has it); Au- 
DiBERT (Paris), also a specialist in the history of 
Roman law; Meynial (Paris), professor of the history 
of Roman and French law; May (Paris), whose "Ele- 
ments de droit romain" has gone into its tenth edition; 
HuvELiN (Lyon), whose "Le Furtum" (vol. I, 1914), 



I50 LAW 

represents a lifetime's labors and ranges over the entire 
area of primitive Roman ideas ; Collinet (Lille) , author of 
^' Etude historique sur le droit de Justinien " (vol. 1, 191 2) ; 
Thomas (Toulouse), whose specialty is the papyrology of 
Roman Law in Egypt; Desserteaux (Dijon), author of 
numerous works on technical Roman law; Monnier 
(Bordeaux), whose specialty is Byzantine Roman Law; 
Flach (Paris), whose vast authority in the historical field 
makes him a specialist in medieval Roman law. 

Legal History. The position of France as the Western 
haven of mingling racial streams of immigration and con- 
quest — Celtic, Romanic, Germanic — has always been 
a stimulus to the decipherer of historical riddles of law. 
And its rich collection of records of customary law has 
served as fertile training material for historical scholars. 
The notable names of the first three-quarters of the 
nineteenth century — Pardessus, Ginoulhiac, Labou- 
LAYE, Laeerriere, Garsonnet, Giraud, Beugnot — 
occupied themselves chiefly with the critical editing of 
these sources (on which, indeed, the greater number of 
modern scholars are still laboring). Then came a 
period of masters who devoted themselves to works of 
larger scope; and this period now continues. The earlier 
ones (but just passed off the stage) include Fustel de 
CouLANGES (a contemporary of Sir Henry Maine's, 
and almost as influential in his ideas); Glasson (whose 
volumes cover the legal history not only of France but 
also of England); Tardif (who specially worked in 
Norman law); Esmein (a versatile master in many 
fields); Beaune and Viollet (whose works have each 
a special merit); and Brissaiid, who was perhaps the 
greatest modern historian of law in any country; cer- 
tainly Maitland, B runner, and Schupfer (of Rome) 
can alone be mentioned with him. 



LAW 151 

Of the older generation of masters now pursuing their 
labors these may be mentioned in passing: Fournier 
(Paris) , whose specialty is the history of mediaeval Roman 
and ecclesiastical law; Flach (Paris), whose "Origines 
de Tancienne France'' marks his special interest in the 
history of public law; his chair is that of the Compara- 
tive History of Legal Systems; Jobbe-Duval (Paris), 
one of whose specialties is mediaeval procedure. 

Among those masters who may be spoken of as juniors, 
but in age only, not in achievement, are these: Huvelin 
(Lyon), whose History of Conmiercial Law (now in 
preparation) will take the place of Goldschmidt's in the 
coming generation; Lambert (Lyon), whose interests 
extend into Comparative Legal History; Caillemer 
(Grenoble), whose ''History of Executors" has thrown 
much Hght on English law; Declareuil (Toulouse), 
whose special field has been the Prankish law; Genestal 
(Paris), whose principal work is in the history of Canon 
laws; Chenon, Meynial, and Lefebvre (Paris), who 
represent general French legal history; the "Histoire 
du droit matrimonial frangais" (4 vols., 1908-14), by 
the last-named scholar, is still unfiinished; Collinet 
(Lille), who besides holding the chair of French Legal 
History is an authority in Roman Law. 

The Societe d'Histoire du Droit et des Institutions 
cultivates specially this field. In the chapter on History 
in this book will be found a more particular account of 
the resources available for research in History generally. 

Comparative Legal History. This subject (as distin- 
guished from Comparative Contemporary Legislation) 
naturally is Hnked with that of Roman and Western 
European legal history, and several of the incumbents 
of chairs above mentioned deal with aspects of it in their 
treatises and courses. But, in another relation, it merges 



152 LAW 

into the History of Universal Legal Ideas, or Evolution 
of Law; and the cultivation of this branch of learning 
has gone on apace in France, since the classic days 
of Sir Henry Maine and Fustel de Coulanges, whose 
works, appearing about the same time in the '60s, have 
passed into numerous editions in many languages and 
have set going a world-wide wave of ideas. It may be 
said that Kohler, in Germany, and Dareste (recently 
deceased) in France, have been the two chief inspirers 
of research in this field in the past generation. But the 
social, economic, and anthropological fields are here so 
intimately involved that much valuable work has been 
done by scholars who cannot strictly be classed as jurists. 
In France, Paul Gide, Laveleye, Letourneau, Tarde, 
Arbois de Joubainville, represent the general literature 
of the past generation on this subject. The brothers 
Revillout, with their . prolific works on Egyptian and 
Babylonian law, gave new directions to the zest for 
general ideas in this field. De la Grasserie (recently 
deceased) emphasized its sociologic aspects. 

For living teachers, no one stands out as specially 
devoted to it; the several aspects must be sought among 
the specialists in history, philology, ethnology, sociology, 
archaeology, and philosophy. For example, Glotz 
(Paris), in Greek law; Durkheim (Paris), in primitive 
religions; Haussoulier (Paris), in epigraphy; Scheil 
(Paris) , in Assyriology , are powerfully stimulating the com- 
parative treatment of legal evolution in its border rela- 
tions with philology, religion, economics, and sociology. 
There is also a special Ecole d' Anthropologic at Paris. 

Comparative Contemporary Law. This field, which 
sometimes merges into the former, is richly represented 
in French learning. The Societe de Legislation com- 
paree, founded in 1870 (the oldest of its kind) publishes 



LAW 153 

an "Annuaire de legislation comparee," as well as a 
^'Bulletin''; and the Ministry of Justice has long had a 
Bureau, the Comite de legislation etrangere, which 
publishes translations of the important foreign codes. 
A number of chairs or courses are especially entitled 
^'de legislation comparee," or "de droit compare," such 
as those of Capitant (Paris), Chavegrin (Paris), 
Massigli (Paris), Flach (Paris), Lambert (Lyon), 
Lyon-Caen and Thaller (Paris), with more or less 
specializing in the several departments of civil, criminal, 
commercial, or constitutional law. 

Systems of Colonial Legislation naturally receive at- 
tention in nearly every faculty of law. Ofi&cials of the 
colonial service are contributing valuable publications 
of materials on Mohammedan, Chinese, and African law 
and custom. In the Ecole Coloniale (Paris) are given 
courses in general colonial law, in the law of China, Indo- 
China, Algeria, Tunis, occidental and equatorial Africa, 
and in Mohammedan law. Industrial Legislation has 
now become a subject of comparative study. Beside the 
courses under the Faculties of Law by Jay and Percerou 
(Paris), Lescure (Bordeaux), Pic (Lyon), Berenger 
(Marseille), and others, instruction is given in this 
subject at the Conservatoire National des Arts et 
Metiers, at the Ecole Centrale des Arts et Manufactures, 
and at the ficole de Legislation Prof essionelle. The Asso- 
ciation Internationale pour la protection legale des Tra- 
vailleurs has its headquarters at Paris, and is an active 
stimulator of research. 

Legislative Methods are coming into the field of com- 
parative law. The necessity for re-casting or replacing 
the century-old Civil Code has stimulated a number of 
activities, particularly the Societe d'Etudes Legislatives, 
a unique organization, which studies the Code topically, 
and through separate Committees prepares and discusses 



154 LAW 

drafts of proposed new chapters framed in the Hght of 
contemporary needs and comparative law. The Aca- 
demie des Sciences Morales et Politiques has a section 
for Legislation, which conducts lectures and debates. 
At Toulouse, the Academic de Legislation conducts 
debates and pubHshes a Recueil. And a number of 
prize competitions for essays are devoted especially to 
the subject of contemporary legislation. 

The rich resources available for legal research in libraries 
and archives are fully set forth in the chapter on Political 
Science in this book, and need not be here repeated. 

Philosophy of Law and Jurisprudence, Neither the 
analytic jurisprudence of Austin, made dominant by 
him for Anglo-America, nor the metaphysical philosophy 
of law, pursued in Germany since Kant's time, obtained 
much footing with French jurists during the i8oos. 
Nor have the universities of France, any more than those 
of America, included courses on jurisprudence and phil- 
osophy of law as a formal part of their prescribed cur- 
riculum. The philosophy of law was left to the philoso- 
phers, — Comte, Fourier, Proudhon, Fouillee. 

But the last twenty-five years have seen a remarkable 
growth in France of a vigorous interest in both of these 
allied branches of study, — chiefly inspired and led (so 
far as personal influence was responsible) by the eminent 
idealist philosopher Fouillee, and by the great jurist 
Saleilles,, whose recent death is lamented in many de- 
partments of legal science. A host of younger men now 
cultivate this field with such originaHty and success 
that, for the philosophy of law of the coming generation, 
the French systems are vital for every American student, 
— the more so as they are the product of a democratic 
nation whose traditions, experiences, and ideals are 
germane to our own. 



LAW 155 

Among the principal contributors now occupying uni- 
versity chairs may be mentioned: Beiidant (Grenoble), 
author of ''Le droit individuel et FEtat" (1891); Char- 
MONT (Montpellier), author of ''Le droit et I'esprit 
democratique," and "La renaissance du droit naturel"; 
Capitant (Paris) and Planiol (Paris), whose books, 
entitled ''Elementary Treatise on Civil Law,'' represent 
most nearly what we are accustomed to term "Ana- 
lytical Jurisprudence"; Duguit (Bordeaux), whose 
masterly works "Le droit social, le droit individuel, et 
la transformation de I'fitat" and "Les transformations 
generales du droit civil" have recently been published 
(in part) in American translations, together with repre- 
sentative parts of Charmont's and Demogue's works; 
Geny (Nancy), whose "Methode d'interpretation et 
sources en droit prive positif " (1899) has stirred European 
philosophic legal thought as no other single book has 
done since von Ihering's "Der Zweck im Recht"; De- 
MOGUE (Lille), author of "Notions fondamentales de droit 
prive" (191 1), which has instantly been recognized as 
the work of a master; Hauriou (Toulouse), author of 
"Le mouvement social," and of "Principes du droit 
public" (1909), one of the most original treatises of the 
time; Lambert (Lyon), whose work bridges the gap 
between comparative law and general jurisprudence; 
Larnaude (Paris; dean of the Faculty of Law), whose 
progressive influence in this field is comparable to that 
of the lamented Saleilles, 

Nor is the expanding power of French thought in this 
field to be measured by a few names in the principal 
chairs; for the published works of Richard ("L'origine 
deTidee du droit"), Michoiid ("La theorie de la person- 
nalite morale"). Cruet ("La vie du droit"), Rolin 
("Prolegomenes de la science du droit"), Tanon, chief 
justice of the Court of Appeal ("L'evolution du droit"); 



156 LAW 

Leroy ("La loi'0> and others, demonstrate that the 
entire region of general jurisprudence and philosophy 
of law is being cultivated with abundant originality and 
power for the coming generation. 

A more ample view of the scope of current French 
work on these subjects is obtainable in vol. VII of the 
Modern Legal Philosophy Series, entitled ''Modern 
French Legal Philosophy'^ (Boston, 1916). 

Criminal Law, Criminal law is now everywhere be- 
coming recognized as dependent on Criminal Science in 
general (or Criminology), and thus presents many com- 
mon problems of theory and method in all countries. 
France's contributions to Criminology are elsewhere in 
this volume fully treated under that head. It is enough 
here to note that the study of Criminal Law itself is in 
France fully in touch, both in theory and in legislative 
spirit, with the forward movement of the last half cen- 
tury. 

The French Penal Code of 1810 was the first radical 
legislative response in Europe to the humanizing revolu- 
tion of opinion led by Beccaria, Howard, and Voltaire. 
Progress in theory during the nineteenth century was 
foUowed by successive legislative reforms in aU fields; 
legislation for juvenile offenders, for example, was 
enacted as early as 1875; ^^^ release on parole, in 1885; 
and for suspended sentence, in 1891. In the subjects 
of criminal procedure, of indeterminate sentence, and of 
revision of penal definitions generally, discussion still 
progresses. The student will find in France as in America 
the same general and active ferment of constructive 
inquiry, experiment, and debate, among all interested 
groups. The scientific and literary activity outside of 
the Universities would make a long bibliography, and indi- 
cates the f ertihty of current French thought in this field. 



LAW 157 

In the law schools, Criminal Law receives in general 
more attention than in any American law school. At 
Paris, there are two professors, — Gar^on, who has anno- 
tated the Code Penal, and Le Poittevin, who has 
annotated the Code d'Instruction Criminelle; the latter 
has also published elaborate practical treatises on Crim- 
inal Procedure, Police Procedure, and Judicial Records; 
both give alternately a course in Comparative Criminal 
Law. The masterly treatise of Saleilles (recently 
deceased; one of France's most famous modern jurists), 
on '^The Individualization of Punishment, '^ has been 
translated into English for an American Committee, in 
the Modern Criminal Science Series. 

At Lyon is Garraud, the best known criminal jurist 
of France. Enough to say that his two treatises on 
Criminal Law and Criminal Procedure (six volumes 
each, now appearing in their second and third editions) 
are the most nearly perfect of their kind in any language. 
At Bordeaux is Bonnecase; at Caen, Degois; at Dijon, 
Roux; at Grenoble, Guetat; at Lille, Demogue; at 
Rennes, Chauveau; at Toulouse, Magnol; at Mont- 
pellier, Laborde, who offers a special course in Criminal 
Procedure and Penal Methods. 

International Law and Public Law. The general 
activities and the university instruction in these two 
fields are so fully set forth in the chapter on Pohtical 
Science, in this book, that . a repetition here is needless. 
Suffice it to say that in each of them the student of law 
will find the most extensive and helpful opportunities. 

General Legal Subjects. In addition to the foregoing 
subjects of supranational interest, the American student 
will find a valuable field for comparison in the courses 
on distinctively national law, both in the arrangement of 



158 LAW 

the curriculum and in the mode of teaching and study. 
In two main respects the curriculum differs from the 
accepted American plan, — it includes more of political 
and legal science, i. e., non-private law subjects, and it 
makes fewer subdivisions of the private law. For example, 
the three-year curriculum for the Licence degree at Paris 
covers, respectively, six, six, and eleven courses; of these 
twenty-three courses, three are in political economy, two 
in Roman law, two in international law, three in public 
and administrative law, one in history, and one in colonial 
legislation; leaving three for commercial law, one for 
criminal law, two for civil procedure, and five for civil or 
private law. The last group would with us be so sub- 
divided as to form at least two thirds of the curriculum. 
In the curriculum for the Doctorate, all of the above 
subjects are pursued in advanced topics, with fewer 
lecture hours and with opportunity for specialization. 
In some of the provincial universities (but not in Paris), 
there is a separate Institut Pratique de droit, and (in 
Paris also) an Ecole du Notariat, where the technical 
niceties of pleading, practice, and conveyancing, are 
specially studied. Thus the foreign student is less 
likely, under the regular University curriculum, to find 
the local practitioner's point of view as prominently 
emphasized as it is in most American schools. 

Methods of Instruction. The American law student, 
trained in the case-system of study and the Socratic meth- 
od of instruction, finds himself in the French law school 
an attendant at formal lectures, where he is a mere 
"auditeur." The size of classes (especially at Paris), 
and the traditions of French teaching, have not encourag- 
ed the close contact of faculty and student that obtains 
in the best American schools today. This may be at 
first a cause of disappointment, and even of discourage- 



LAW 159 

ment, to the energetic student. But it should rather prove 
a test of his mettle. The problem of self -adjustment to 
new methods and materials is of itself valuable to the 
thinker. And, of course, to the earnest and talented 
aspirant, personal contact with the most eminent profes- 
sors is attainable. 

Perhaps equal in value to the acquirement of positive 
knowledge are the influences of the French "milieu," 
scholastic, public and private; these, if the student be 
sensible to them, must inevitably draw him, as an earnest 
partisan on one or the other side, into the stimulating 
movements which are characterizing French thought 
today. 

Finally it may be noted that the French genius for 
formal pubHc expression should offer to the receptive Am- 
erican aspirant a stimulus and a model, such as would 
profit both the practitioner and the university teacher in 
America. 



Mathematics 



Mathematics- 

The study of Mathematics has always made a special 
appeal to the French genius, distinguished by its fondness 
for logic and its striving for perfection in form. Since 
the time of Vieta, Fermat, Descartes, and Pascal, 
there has never been a period in which French mathe- 
maticians have not held a commanding position in their 
field. In particular, during the great epoch of 173a- 
1820, when the Calculus and its applications received 
their formal development, it has been well said that 
"the scepter of Mathematics was in French hands.'' 
To justify this, one needs mention only the names of 
Lagrange, Laplace, Legendre, Poncelet, and Monge, 
among a host of others. 

Though this period was followed by one somewhat less 
brilliant, especially after the passing of Fourier and 
Poisson; yet the work of Cauchy alone, in the first 
three decades after 1820, would have upheld the great 
tradition. To this epoch also belong Galois, who before 
his death at twenty-one had discovered principles that 
recreated modern algebra, and Sturm and Liouville, 
whose names are attached to fundamental results in 
algebra and the theory of linear differential equations. 

To Hermite belongs the distinction of leading the 
French school of mathematicians from the death of 
Cauchy till the rise of the present group, who may well 
be regarded as having restored the preeminence of 

^[Drafting Committee: D. R. Curtiss, Northwestern University; 
T. F. HoLGATE, Northwestern University; E. H. Moore, University of 
Chicago; E. B. Wilson, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. — Ed.] 

163 



i64 MATHEMATICS 

France in Mathematics. He was in a special sense their 
master, equally great as teacher and scholar, and, in the 
wide field he covered, typical of the modern school. 
Among the notable contributors of this period was Chasles. 

The present era in French mathematics may be said 
to date from the early work of Darboux and Jordan, in 
the late sixties and early seventies. In rapid succession 
appear the names of Picard, Poincare, Appell, Pain- 
LEVE, GouRSAT, Hadamard, and BoREL. Nor have the 
achievements of the still younger group given ground to 
believe that successors will be wanting. The brilliance 
of the modern school has been enhanced by the broadness 
of its leaders' achievements; the contributions of Picard, 
Poincare, and Hadamard, for example, have been re- 
markable in geometry, algebra, and applied mathematics, 
as well as in analysis. The latter field has, however, 
been perhaps the most cultivated. 

No account of recent French mathematics can be com- 
plete which fails to yield its tribute to the genius of 
Poincare. At his death, in 191 2, it was the universal 
verdict that he must be considered the greatest mathe- 
matician of his age. 

Mathematicians of Today and their Work. It has 

undoubtedly been true for many years that the group of 
mathematicians resident in Paris was the most distin- 
guished to be found at any one place in the world, and 
there is no reason to believe that this situation will soon 
be altered. The centralization of French scientific 
activity presents distinct advantages to the mathematical 
student from abroad, especially to the man of more mature 
type. The older and more eminent mathematicians are 
grouped in Paris. However, many of the provincial 
universities have on their faculties one or more men, 
usually of the younger scholars, who have such special 




MATHEMATICS 



MATHEMATICS 165 

knowledge of a given field that the visiting student cannot 
afford to ignore the opportunity of working with them. 
Thus, within a few years past two younger men as well- 
known as BouTROUX and Frechet were to be found at 
Poitiers; and, to mention but one other name, Baire 
was at another provincial university. The university 
of Toulouse has always had a strong mathematical 
faculty. 

The dean of French mathematicians, still active, is 
Darboux, perhaps the most distinguished living worker 
in the field of differential geometry. His great treatise 
is the standard authority on that subject. In spite of 
the demands made on his time by his other duties (he is, 
for example, permanent secretary of the Academy of 
Sciences), he continues to give each year a course at the 
Sorbonne on higher geometry that no visiting student 
can afford to miss. It would be worth while to sit under 
him, if only to absorb something of his great charm as a 
lecturer. ^ 

PiCARD is equally noted for his life and inspiration in 
the class-room; he is one of the few men who are great 
both as teachers and investigators. For nearly forty 
years his contributions to the theory of functions and to 
differential equations have been of fundamental im- 
portance. Many of them have been summed up in his 
great ^'Traite d'analyse," of which the fourth and last 
volume is still in preparation, and in the two volumes 
of the "Theorie des fonctions algebriques de deux vari- 
ables independantes.'' The field represented by this 
last work has of late years especially occupied his atten- 
tion. His lectures at the Sorbonne share with Darboux's 
the distinction of being among the most popular under 
the Faculty of Sciences. 

^ [We regret to chronicle, since this chapter went to press, the death 
of this eminent scientist. — Authors.] 



i66 MATHEMATICS 

Although Appell has long been dean of the Faculty 
of Sciences at the Sorbonne, he has continued to give a 
course there each year. His contributions to analysis 
and applied mathematics are indicated by his well-known 
volumes on algebraic functions and their integrals (in 
collaboration with Goursat), on elliptic functions, 
(jointly with Lacour), and especially by his three-volume 
^'Traite de mecanique rationnelle." He has been espe- 
cially distinguished as a teacher, and for a number of 
years gave a most successful course in the Sorbonne on 
general mathematics for students of other sciences; this 
is now accessible in published form. In 191 5-16 he 
lectured on analytic mechanics and celestial mechanics. 

Goursat has long covered the field of differential and 
integral calculus at the Sorbonne. His lectures have 
formed the basis of his celebrated "Cours d'analyse," 
one of the most widely used modern texts in its field. 
Only less well-known are his works on partial differential 
equations and on algebraic functions, while his frequent 
contributions have made his name familiar to readers 
of mathematical periodicals. 

BoREL bears the title of professor at the Sorbonne, and 
in some years has given public lectures there. In the 
year 191 5-16, however, his work was confined to the 
Ecole Normale Superieure, and was open to visiting stu- 
dents only by special arrangement. He may be con- 
sidered, perhaps jointly with Hadamard, as the leader 
in a younger group of French analysts. He is probably 
best known by the series of monographs (on the theory 
of functions) of which he is the editor, and of a number 
of which he is the author. 

In 191 5-16, GuiCHARD and Cahen gave courses in 
the Sorbonne on rational mechanics. Both these men 
have done important work also in other fields, the former 
in geometry, the latter in the theory of numbers. Their 



MATHEMATICS 167 

brilliant predecessor in the chair of mechanics, 
Painleve, has been for a time occupied with governmental 
work, as Minister of Education. 

The courses of Boussinesq and Koenigs in mathe- 
matical physics should also be mentioned, though they 
lie partly without the field we are considering. 

In addition to the lecture courses mentioned above, 
conferences were held at the Sorbonne and the ficole 
Normale in 191 5-16 by Lebesgue, whose new theory 
of integration is already classical; Vessiot, perhaps best 
known for his work in extending the Galois theory to 
Hnear differential equations; Cartan, whose name is 
famihar to students of group theory; and Montel, who 
has made brilliant contributions to the theory of func- 
tions. 

If we have deferred mention of Hadamard, it is not 
because he can be assigned any other than a foremost 
position among French mathematicians, but on account 
of the fact that his work in not at the Sorbonne, but 
at the College de France and the ficole Polytechnique. 
At the latter institution his classes are not open to the 
public; but at the former, where he holds the chair 
of Analytic and Celestial Mechanics, all hearers are 
welcome. His courses are by no means confined to the 
subjects indicated; in the year 191 5-16 he lectured on 
the analytic theory of prime numbers, to which he made 
contributions of such fundamental importance in his 
earlier work. Like Poincare, his genius has covered 
almost the whole field of mathematics, and he has espe- 
cially enriched analysis and applied mathematics by his 
researches. 

At the College de France one may also hear the lec- 
tures of Humbert, perhaps best known by his "Cours 
d'analyse." His work is mainly in algebra and analysis. 
The courses in mathematical physics given here by 



1 68 MATHEMATICS 

Brillouin and Langevin fall at least partly in the field 
we are considering. 

Special Facilities for Work in Mathematics. The 
difficulty of obtaining personal assistance and direction 
has by some been considered, in past periods, an obstacle 
to the study of mathematics in France. It is true that 
there is nothing like a seminary system, but men of some 
maturity who are pursuing research along a special line 
will find the experts in that field glad to confer with them. 
The leaders in French mathematics are unusually acces- 
sible personally, and many American students have 
derived inspiration and encouragement from them. 

It is possible for foreign students to obtain admission 
to the Ecole Normale Superieure, and in the past a 
few have done so. One may thus attend courses closed 
to the public and have access to the large mathematical 
library of the school. The mere association with the 
intellectual elite of French students is a privilege worth 
while in itself. 

The great library of the Sorbonne has a complete 
mathematical collection; one who joins the French mathe- 
matical society has the privilege, enjoyed by members, 
of access to the shelves of the library. Another mathemat- 
ical collection of considerable value to one lodged in the 
student quarter of Paris is that of the Bibliotheque 
Sainte-Genevieve. 



Medicine 

INCLUDING 

INTRODUCTORY SURVEY, 

PHYSIOLOGY, NEUROLOGY, 

MEDICINE, SURGERY, 

AND PATHOLOGY 



Introductory Survey of 
French Medical Science' 

To catch and imprison within the rigid symbols of 
language the spirit of a people, as shown in any aspect 
of their national life, so that the printed page may render 
back to each reader a faithful picture, is as difficult as the 
task of the painter, who would depict upon his canvas not 
merely the features, but the essence of that inner life 
which lies back of the ever-changing expression as a 
central unity. Without this there can be no true portrait. 
French medical science, in the modern sense, has a history 
of a little more than one hundred years, of rapid growth, 
of constantly increasing diversification, of shifting inter- 
ests like the swing of the pendulum, often too far to one 
side, then to the other. Nevertheless, through it all can be 
traced something individual, a central stream of tendency 
essentially French, which, impinged on from either side by 
the flow of thought into it from other lands, has produced 
the actual achievements in each of the lines of special en- 
deavor that will be recounted in the chapters which follow. 
Sympathy and imagination are perhaps the most char- 
acteristic attributes of the French mind, as common-sense 
and justice are of the Anglo-Saxon, and orderliness of 
the German. Sympathy and imagination may, I believe, 
be traced through the whole development of French 
medicine. Wide and sympathetic interest in the relief of 
human suffering through the advance of knowledge of 
disease has been instinctive in their greatest scientists, 

^[Drafting Committee: T. C. Janeway, Johns Hopkins Univer- 
sity. — Ed.] 

171 



172 MEDICINE 

and has prevented that intense absorption in a single 
field of research which leads to complete detachment and 
isolation of the investigator. Because of this, French 
physiology, from Magendie through the immortal Claude 
Bernard and Marey to its modern exponents, has always 
been experimental medicine. Each of these men, while 
aiming at the elucidation of the normal function of the 
body, constantly strove to apply his discoveries to the 
unraveling of their complex disorders. The mention of 
Claude Bernard's name evokes first of all the thought of 
diabetes, not of the normal liver function. These men 
taught as they thought, presenting their subject in its 
relation to pathology and to clinical medicine, not as 
something independent and self-sufficient. The earher 
chapters of Claude Bernard's ^'Legons de physiologic ex- 
perimentale" contain the program of the modern medical 
clinic, set forth with a cogency and a lucidity which have 
never been equalled, a program which we are only just 
beginning to realize. So too Pasteur, the chemist, with 
the highest type of scientific imagination, seeing in his 
discovery of the nature of putrefaction the key which 
would unlock the door to knowledge of the infectious 
diseases, and planning the simplest experiments by which 
he might reach his goal, is kin to the creative artist who, 
with a few bold lines, draws the picture that will live when 
mere photographs, with all their wealth of detail, shall 
have faded into nothingness. 

Closely allied to the insight which grows out of imagina- 
tion and sympathy is a certain attitude toward reahty as a 
whole, which the French exemplify in their thought as in 
their medical science. They love life in all its bafiling 
complexity better than abstract formulations. An in- 
tense desire to see and accurately describe every varied 
feature of disease in the actual patient has enabled French 
physicians to detect and record for the first time many 



INTRODUCTORY SURVEY 173 

rare morbid conditions and symptoms. They have been 
masters of the arts of cHnical observation and description. 
This interest in the actual, in seeing things- as they are 
through one's own eyes, is of all qualities the most im- 
portant for the practitioner of medicine. It consorts ill 
with the tendency of the compiler, who laboriously 
gathers from other sources than his own experience all 
existing knowledge, and, systematizing it, makes it avail- 
able for the mass of men. He is the bookkeeper of 
science, useful but uninspiring. The infinite variety of 
the expressions of disease in the individual has at times 
led the French school to erect unnecessary distinctions; 
but, in spite of occasional excesses, its keen discrimina- 
tions have been the means of detecting many unsuspected 
clinical syndromes. Because of this fundamental interest 
in the concrete, French medical students have always 
entered the hospitals from the very beginning of their 
course, and have seen sick patients during the years in 
which they were mastering anatomy, physiology, and the 
other underlying medical sciences. 

Finally, that passion for the mastery of his language 
as a vehicle for thought, which is so strong in the French- 
man, has lent to his medical teaching and to the pub- 
lication of his scientific work a clarity, elegance, and charm 
which are rarely equalled in any other country. To the 
earnest student of medicine the manner in which he 
clothes his ideas can never be of small consequence; and 
the example which will be constantly before him as he 
listens to the presentation of a case in the hospital ward, 
or to the announcement in a few concise and telling words 
of an important discovery at a meeting of the Societe de 
Biologic or the Societe des Hopitaux, will be one worthy of 
emulation. 

In modern science, machinery and method have of late 
almost obscured from view that hidden, but essential. 



174 MEDICINE 

factor in progress, the mind of man. Machinery and 
method have proved their value, and we shall not discard 
them. France has perhaps in the past laid too little 
stress on the organization of research, but she has never 
failed to preserve that atmosphere of free intellectual 
inquiry and unconquerable scientific curiosity in which 
the genius who creates new machinery and devises new 
methods to solve new problems can best develop. The 
first great American physicians, one hundred years ago, 
sought in Paris at the feet of Laennec and Louis, of 
PiNEL and RicoRD, of Dupuytren and Velpeau, and of 
the great Mageiitdie, the inspiration which enabled them 
to lay the foundation of scientific medicine in our land. 
American medical science is now thoroughly organized, 
rich in facilities for research in hospitals and laboratories, 
full of enthusiasm for high achievement. It must appro- 
priate and adapt to its own uses the best that it finds in all 
lands. In France it will find scientific imagination of the 
highest order, sympathy so wide as to unite all groups of 
specialists in devotion to the aims of medicine as a whole, 
acute observation of the finer details of clinical symptoms, 
a spirit which loves reality so intensely that it will not 
cramp it within too simple and artificial categories, and 
the best model for its imitation in the creation of its 
medical literature. 











-*^^^s 




o 

^ S 
o 


^a| 


y^ 




'"^ -■ • ■-■■ ^^ 

te%-' life 









Physiology* 

The historian who attempts to trace the development 
of modern physiology (that is to say, physiology as an 
experimental science based on physics and chemistry) 
will find it necessary to refer constantly to the names 
of the great French physiologists of the 19th century, 
Francois Magendie and Claude Bernard. While much 
good work was being done in England at that period, 
largely on anatomical lines, and in Germany Johannes 
MtJLLER and his famous pupils were making notable 
contributions to physiology and, indeed, to biology in 
general, the really modern spirit of physiological research 
found its most earnest advocates and exemplars in the 
two French physiologists named. In his wonderful ex- 
perimental lectures, given at the College de France, 
Magendie over and over again emphasized the impor- 
tance of experimental investigation as opposed to specu- 
lation and theorizing, and in his words and by his works 
he indicated clearly the lines along which physiology 
should advance, — the lines in fact along which it has 
advanced. His great pupil Bernard, filled with his 
master's spirit, and endowed with a scientific mind of 
the first order, made those remarkable discoveries which 
entitle him to be ranked as the greatest physiologist 
that the world has produced. At that time physiology 
was the sole experimental medical science; and the great 
influence exerted by these two men made itself felt not 
only upon the subsequent development of physiology 

^ [Drafting Committee: Wm. H. Howell, Johns Hopkins Univer- 
sity. — Ed.] 

17s 



176 MEDICINE 

as a separate science but in the modernization of medi- 
cine as a whole. Medical men from all countries went 
to Paris to work with Bernard, and by this means his 
influence was extended through personal contact over a 
wide area. 

In addition there grew up round him a group of 
pupils, Marey, FRANfois-FRANCK, Bert, Richet, 
d'ARSONVAL, Grehant, Dastre, and others, who in 
their turn have contributed brilliantly to the advance- 
ment of the subject. The work of Bert upon barometric 
pressure is worthy of special notice. Conceived and 
executed in a scientific and comprehensive spirit, it met 
at first, singularly enough, with some bitter criticism 
from abroad; but it has since come to be recognized as 
the classic and starting point for all investigations 
dealing with the physiological effects of variations in 
atmospheric pressure. No less noteworthy are the 
important contributions made by Marey to the study 
of movements and the development of a beautiful tech- 
nique for graphic reproductions of all kinds. Physiol- 
ogists of all countries are deeply indebted to his genius 
in devising apparatus and methods. 

The living French physiologists comprise such names 
as Richet, Dastre, d'ARSONVAL, FRANgois-FRANCK, 
Gley, Weiss, Morat, Doyon, Langlois, Nicloux, 
Lapicque, — names known to the physiologists in all 
countries because of the important contributions to 
science associated with them. Richet has had the honor 
of a Nobel prize for his fundamental work in anaphylaxis. 
D'Arsonval, brilliant as a physicist as well as physiol- 
ogist, is remembered also in connection with some of 
the early work upon internal secretions done in collabora- 
tion with Brown-Sequard. Gley's work has taken a 
wide range, but his contributions to the physiology of 
the internal secretions, especially of the parathyroid 



PHYSIOLOGY 177 

glands, have been of fundamental importance. Fran- 
gois-FRANCK has published many beautiful papers upon 
vasomotor regulation, important in their results and 
models of technical skill. Dastre, in his own name and 
through the workers in his well-equipped laboratory, is 
known for work in all branches of physiology and physi- 
ological chemistry. The work of these men and their 
pupils includes all the existing fields in physiology. 

The longer contributions appear in the *' Journal de 
Physiologie et de pathologic generale,'' the successor to 
the well known "Archives de Physiologie normale et 
pathologique:" but the pages of the weekly journal 
" Comptes rendus de la Societe de Biologic'' teem with 
shorter communications that touch on every phase of 
biological research, and reflect like a mirror the latest 
thoughts and aspirations of the workers in science. 

Instruction. Any student who wishes to pursue 
advanced work in Physiology or desires instruction in 
modern methods of research will find in France, and 
especially of course in Paris, able and distinguished 
teachers and ample laboratory facilities. In the labo- 
ratories of the Faculte de Medecine, at the Sorbonne in 
the Faculte des Sciences, at the College de France, the 
Museum d'Histoire Naturelle, and the Institut Pasteur, 
opportunities are offered for investigative work in all 
branches of physiology, and in biological chemistry and 
physics. Details in regard to the lecture courses and 
laboratory courses which may be followed are furnished 
by the "Livret de I'Etudiant'' of the University of 
Paris; but arrangements in regard to participation in 
research work must be made of course with the directors 
of the laboratories. 

Libraries are numerous and complete. In addition to 
the great Bibliotheque Nationale, there are special 



178 MEDICINE 

libraries at the School of Medicine, the Pasteur In- 
stitute, the Biological Society, etc. In the use of these 
libraries the American student will not find the same 
freedom and UberaUty that he is accustomed to in 
American universities. So far as the writer is informed 
none of the Continental libraries follow the generous 
American plan of giving students free access to books and 
periodicals. But if the regulations in force are learned 
and observed, no serious difficulty is encountered in 
obtaining any Hterature that may be desired. 

Outside this routine work in lectures and in labora- 
tories, the physiological student in Paris has an almost 
unequaled opportunity to acquire a broad cultural basis 
in the related sciences and in the historical develop- 
ment of his subject. Numerous pubKc lectures and 
exercises may be attended without charge; and in the 
many museums, especially in the Museum of the Con- 
servatoire National des Arts et Metiers, objects of 
historical interest in science may be seen and studied. 




L-E RROF-eSSEUR CHARCOT 

Mcmbro <te ITiisUlut 



JEAN MARTIN CHARCOT (1825-1893) 



medicine: neurology 



Neurology' 

Since the dawn of scientific medicine the neurology 
of France has been preeminent, sometimes almost to the 
point of isolation. And the present maintains the tra- 
ditions of the past. Now, as formerly, productivity in 
this department is largely concentrated in Paris. Unless 
it be on account of some sporadic activity (such as the 
work in hypnotism at Nancy thirty years ago), the 
student of nervous diseases will have no occasion to go 
elsewhere. In the Capital the science and art of neurol- 
ogy flourish as on no other soil. Enormous hospitals 
and infirmaries furnish cHnical and pathological material 
without parallel, and here are more men of parts actively 
engaged in neurological work than in any other city of the 
world. The Societe de Neurologic de Paris is the best, 
the best organized, and the most active neurological 
society in existence. There are numerous laboratories 
where research work is constantly prosecuted; there 
are regular courses covering the various aspects of 
neurology; during vacation periods there are short 
courses for graduates; and there is a medical library of 
160,000 volumes. Added to this, there is a policy of 
freedom, a ready accessibility, and a personal welcome 
such as are found in no other great medical center of 
Europe. 

In presenting a brief outline of the opportunities for 
graduate work in neurology we may assume that the 

1 [Drafting Committee: Hugh T. Patrick, Northwestern Univer- 
sity; Morton Prince, Tufts College. — Ed.] 

179 



i8o MEDICINE 

student has mastered the more elementary steps. If 
he has not, there are laboratories where he can familiarize 
himself with the structure of the nervous system and 
histological technique. Likewise he will find practical 
courses in methods of clinical examination, diagnosis, 
and treatment. Such courses are given especially in 
connection with the Clinic for Diseases of the Nervous 
System at the Salpetriere, where the material is pecu- 
liarly rich. 

The more advanced student will wish to spend his 
time with the leaders of French neurology in the various 
hospitals and in the laboratories for research and patho- 
logical work. Here it is difficult to separate the man from 
the institution, and consequently we shall make an 
attempt to consider them together, — a quite illogical, 
but we think useful method. And first of all. 

La Salpetriere {Hospice de). This is a huge infirmary 
or poorhouse for women. But it is on a hospital basis, 
divided into well organized services with complete at- 
tending and house staffs, the patients studied and re- 
corded as in any modern hospital. It was here that 
Charcot pursued his epoch-making researches and 
where he finally induced the faculty to establish the 
far-famed university clinic for diseases of the nervous 
system. Later, to this service were added two large 
wards for men. On this terrain Charcot developed 
what was known as the School of Charcot, and here 
delivered the scintillating clinical lectures which have 
been the admiration and despair of other teachers and 
have remained a tradition and an example for his 
followers. 

On his death in 1893, he was succeeded temporarily 
(two years) by the brilliant and beloved Brissaud, 
whose two volumes of lectures here delivered are neurol- 
ogical gems. The productive Raymond followed him; 



NEUROLOGY i8i 

and the present incumbent is J. Dejerine/ who for many 
years has been one of the strongest neurologists of France. 
He is the author of a remarkable "Semiologie des 
Maladies du Systeme Nerveux"; with Mme. Dejerine 
has written a great Anatomy of the Nervous System; 
and has published innumerable valuable papers. During 
the school year he gives two cHnics a week. That of 
Tuesday is more informal, more directly practical, in- 
volving the presentation of more patients without ex- 
haustive consideration of any subject. The Friday 
lecture generally is devoted to more fundamental, sys- 
tematic treatment of some disease or problem, and the 
same subject may run through several lectures. The 
great wealth of clinical material makes these lectures 
extraordinary. With this service is a large out-patient 
department. 

At the Salpetriere is also another immense service prac- 
tically devoted to nervous diseases. The head is Pierre 
Marie, perhaps the most celebrated neurologist of 
France. Only to catalogue his notable contributions to 
neuro-pathology would require a small book. Perhaps 
he is best known from his work on acromegaly, various 
aspects of apoplexy, scoliose rhizomelique, and aphasia; 
but there is scarcely a phase of organic disease of the 
nervous system which he has not touched to illuminate. 
He delivers no formal lectures but once a week has a 
"consultation d^externe," or dispensary service, where 
he holds an extemporaneous clinic. The patients are 
examined under his eye, and he makes diagnoses, com- 
ments and explanations. Of necessity the work is rapid 
and hence rather superficial; but the master exhibits a 
combination of erudition, perspicacity, and perspicuity, 

^ [We regret to have to chronicle his decease, which occurred after 
this chapter went to the printer. Presumably he will be succeeded 
by Marie. — Authors.] 



i82 MEDICINE 

to be met not more than once or twice in a lifetime. For 
the student of nervous diseases it is a mine of informa- 
tion and inspiration. For more mature study and treat- 
ment many of these patients are taken into the wards 
which Marie visits nearly every day. The ward visits 
are free to any graduate, who thus hears the reports of 
assistants and internes, the comments, corrections, and 
conclusions of the chief. This is not a course of instruc- 
tion, but routine work, and the visitor's tact will indicate 
to what extent he may ask questions. 

In connection with these two dominant services at the 
Salpetriere, associates and assistants frequently give 
courses relating to some special subject. These junior 
members of the staff are trained and generally eminent 
neurologists. One may mention Andre Thomas, who 
knows as much of the cerebellum as any man; Henri 
Meige, who (following Brissaud) has made a profound 
study of the various tics; Crouzon, a good all-round 
man; Forx, who is a laboratory expert as well as a good 
clinician; and whosoever happens to be chief of clinic 
for Dejerine. 

In connection with the University clinic, but used 
also by the other services, is a very complete electric 
department under the personal direction of Dr. Bour- 
GUiNON, capable, enthusiastic, amiable. This, like every- 
thing else, is quite accessible to the graduate student, 
and offers unequalled opportunity to become familiar 
with electrodiagnosis and electrotherapeutics. 

We may here state, for the Salpetriere as well as for 
all other hospitals and infirmaries of Paris, that the 
qualified graduate will have no difficulty in associating 
himself with assistants and internes so as to watch their 
daily work, learn their methods and become acquainted 
with their cases. In many instances he may procure 
the privilege of examining patients himself, thus becoming 



NEUROLOGY 183 

familiar with rare types as well as classical clinical 
pictures. 

Bicetre (Hospice de) is an infirmary for men, corre- 
sponding to the Salpetriere (though not so conveniently 
located), and is second only to the latter in wealth of 
neurological material. In the nature of things the cases 
are mostly chronic. Here patients are kept and observed, 
and here they come to autopsy. At Bicetre the visitor 
will find many a patient who has served as text for a 
dissertation; he will recall his picture seen in a medical 
journal, and later he will read of the post mortem find- 
ings. Prof. A. SouQUES, who was preceded by Dejerine 
and Pierre Marie, now has the choice service. As a rule 
he gives no regular course of instruction, but one may 
always make the ward visits with him and will be richly 
repaid. He is one of the ablest and best informed of the 
Paris school, as well as one of the most approachable, 
and he has a collection of patients not to be dupHcated. 
Their careful study is well worth the time of any neurol- 
ogist. 

In the same institution is a huge service for the feeble- 
minded (idiots and imbeciles), where Bourne ville 
made his remarkable pioneer studies and whence issued 
his valuable detailed reports. 

L ^Hopital de la Pitie should next be mentioned, because 
here is Babinski, universally known from the reflex 
called by his name; certainly one of the most original, 
astute, and forceful of living neurologists. He seems to 
combine Gallic brilliance with the methodical thorough- 
ness of the German, and by some is considered the great- 
est French neurologist. Having true scientific insight, 
the fruit of his labor is rarely without value. Deprived 
of his contributions on the reflexes, on spinal and brain- 
stem localization, on cerebellar disorders, hysteria and 
many other things, modern neurology would be far from 



i84 MEDICINE 

being what it is. He has not nearly so many beds as 
Marie, Dejerine, and Souques; but his turnover is more 
rapid, he has more acute cases and also a large out- 
patient following. During at least one semester he 
gives a course of semi-weekly chnical lectures which are 
unexcelled and which no student of neurology can afford 
to miss. Also one may make the ward visits with him 
and witness the examination of such patients as are 
brought to his "cabinet.'' 

Ivry is a suburb where is located another huge hospice, 
like the Salpetriere and Bicetre, and like them it houses 
a large number of neurological cases. Until the outbreak 
of the present war this service was in charge of Prof. 
J. A. SiCARD. This conflict once over, probably he will 
be transferred to a service within the city. Wherever 
he may be, he is well worth following, as he has had quite 
exceptional training, and is one of the most clear-sighted, 
enthusiastic, and energetic of the present generation. 

The goyernment plan of promoting hospital physicians 
("medecins des hopitaux") from one service to another 
makes it impossible to predict where the younger men 
may be found a year hence. Still, we must indicate some 
of these rising and risen men, whose courses should be 
taken and whose services visited as occasion offers. A 
full list is impossible; but of the best are Georges Guil- 
LAiN, Henri Claude, Huet, Alquier, Andre Leri, 
Laignel-Lavastine, Camus, Klippel, Enriquez, 
JuMENTiE, and Lhermitte; for surgery, of the nerv- 
ous system, De Martel. 

We would particularly note that no follower of neu- 
rology should miss the monthly or semi-monthly meetings 
of the Societe de Neurologie. 

Laboratories, In addition to the regular University 
laboratories of anatomy and pathology, there are labora- 
tories of neuro-pathology in connection with the services 



NEUROLOGY 185 

of Dejerine, Marie, Babinski, and Souques. That of the 
Clinic for Diseases of the Nervous System is extensive 
and well organized, and offers instruction in laboratory 
methods and normal and abnormal nervous tissues. In 
all of them a volunteer competent to work on pathological 
material or to carry on research work will be welcome, 
and will have the guidance, the support, and the inspira- 
tion of trained experts. Gustave Roussy, who is chief 
of the University laboratory of pathology, is a trained 
neurologist and especially interested in pathology of the 
nervous system. 

Psychiatry. The focus of psychiatric teaching is at 
the Asile Sainte-Anne, where the professor of this de- 
partment of medicine is chief and where he gives 
clinics. Who is to succeed the late lamented Ballet is 
not now known to us, but he is sure to be a strong man 
and a good teacher. For years it has been customary 
at this institution to give a two-hour cHnic on Sunday 
mornings. At Ste.-Anne there is also another large 
service in mental diseases, so that the student devoting 
himself to this branch can with profit put in a large part 
of his time here. At the Salpetriere and at Bicetre are 
departments for the insane, freely accessible to graduates 
and where from time to time courses are given. 

As nearly all ward visits are made in the morning and 
most clinical lectures delivered "ante meridian," the 
student devoted to clinical work alone may be a little 
embarrassed in the disposition of his afternoons. Espe- 
cially welcome to him will be the Infirmerie Speciale du 
Depot in the Quai de I'Horloge where every afternoon 
Prof. Ernest Dupre (the worthy successor of Lasegue 
and Garnier) examines those mentally deranged or 
suspected of mental disorder who have been arrested or 
picked up by the police. The work involves no profound 
study of any case, as the Infirmerie is a depot of transit; 



i86 MEDICINE 

but we believe that nowhere can one so well learn how to 
go quickly to the kernel of a case of insanity. In most 
semesters Dupre gives a clinic once a week at which the 
cases are gone into more in detail. He is a psychiatrist 
of the highest order and a fine teacher. 

. The Societe de Psychiatrie and several excellent 
journals afford the forums and clearing houses necessary 
to maintain the traditions and continue the honorable 
heritage of French psychiatry. 



Medicine' 



In France at the beginning of the last century modern 
methods of cHnical observation had their birth. 

BiCHAT, following the great Morgagni, began to 
reveal those changes which occur in the organs as the 
result of disease, and to correlate the pathological altera- 
tions with symptoms which occur during life. And when 
his too short day was past, there followed a remarkable 
group of eager cHnicians who endeavoured on the one 
hand, by physical means, to detect these changes during 
life and by the accumulation of careful clinical and post 
mortem observations to improve the art of diagnosis; 
and on the other, by the employment of a rigid statistical 
method to test the accuracy of diagnosis and treatment. 
It was into French that the generally neglected contri- 
bution of AuENBRUGGER, announcing the discovery of 
the art of percussion, was first translated (de Roziere de la 
Chassagne, "Manuel des pulmoniques, etc.,'' i6°, Paris, 
Humaire, 1770); and later, in 1808, it was Corvisart 
who first recognized the value of percussion and intro- 
duced it into general use (Auenbrugger, "Nouvelle 
methode, etc.,'' par J. N. Corvisart, 8°, Paris, Migneret, 
1808). 

Laennec followed with his discovery of the art of 
auscultation, which for the first time made possible the 
accurate diagnosis of diseases of the chest. The cHnical 
methods of this great man, as set forth in the preface 
of his famous work "L'auscultation mediate, etc.," (8°, 

^ [Drafting Committee: W. S. Thayer, Johns Hopkins University. — 
Ed.] 

187 



i88 MEDICINE 

Paris, Brosson & Chaude, 1819) are models for all time. 
His descriptions of emphysema, bronchiectasis, pul- 
monary oedema, and hepatic cirrhosis, are classical. 

These precursors were followed by a remarkable body 
of students of whom a few may be mentioned: 

BouiLLAUD, whose acute observations first called 
attention to the. relation between acute polyarthritis 
and endocarditis, was also one of the earliest to point 
out the phenomena of cerebral localization. Andral 
and Chomel, able clinicians and conscientious ob- 
servers. Rayer, one of the earliest students of diseases 
of the kidneys, whose beautiful atlas is still regarded 
as a treasure by the fortunate possessor. Louis, 
who through his patient studies and his "numerical 
method,'' contributed greatly to the elucidation of the 
symptomatology of tuberculosis, of yellow fever, and 
especially of typhoid fever which he and his students 
first clearly distinguished from typhus. To Louis' in- 
fluence more than to that of any other one man do we 
owe the introduction of accurate clinical methods into 
America. Inspired by him, a large group of students, 
including the Jacksons, the Warrens, Bowditch, Holmes, 
and Shattuck of Boston; Alonzo Clark, Valentine Mott, 
and Metcalf of New York; Gerhard, Norris, Stille, 
Clymer, Ruschenberger, and Pepper, Sr., of Philadelphia; 
Power of Baltimore; Gaillard, Gibbs, and Porcher of 
Charleston; Cabell, Selden, and Randolph of Virginia; 
brought home enthusiasm and ideals which have been of 
incalculable benefit to American medicine. 

Bretonneau, celebrated for his studies on diphtheria 
to which he gave its name. Villemin, who in 1866 
demonstrated the transmissibility of tuberculosis. 
Trousseau, the brilliant cHnician, author of the cele- 
brated Clinique de FHotel-Dieu. Marey, initiator of 
graphic methods of the study of the circulation. Potain, 




medicine: medicine 



MEDICINE 189 

whose early studies on the blood pressure and other 
cardio-vascular problems contain so much that is sug- 
gestive and valuable; author with Teissier, Vaquez, 
Frangois-Franck and others, of "Chnique medicale de la 
Charite" (8°, Paris, Masson, 1894). Lancereaux, who 
first suggested the relation of the pancreas to diabetes. 
HucHARD, student of diseases of the circulatory appa- 
ratus. RicoRD, whose contributions to venereal disease, 
especially to the definite separation of syphilis and 
gonorrhoea are, as Garrison has said, "memorable in 
the history of medicine." Fournier, the famous syphil- 
ographer. Hanot, well known for his studies on cirrhosis 
of the liver, who, with Chauffard, first described pigmen- 
tary cirrhosis. Charcot, probably the greatest clinician 
of his day, whose earlier contributions on various branches 
of general medicine were scarcely less valuable than his 
classical studies upon nervous diseases which followed. 
Dieulafoy, student and successor of Trousseau, fascinat- 
ing clinician, author of the well-known treatise on medi- 
cine and of six volumes of clinical lectures. Duchenne of 
Boulogne, the great neurologist; Brissaud, Joffroy, 

GiLLES DE LA TOURETTE, LaNDRY, and MORVAN, tO 

mention but a few only of those who have made notable 
contributions to neurology. 

Pasteur, who opened the whole chapter of the rela- 
tions of infection to medicine; whose service to mankind 
looms larger with every addition which has been made 
to our knowledge of infectious deseases. Yersin, to 
whom we are indebted for the sero-therapy and pro- 
phylaxis of plague. 

These are but a few of the Frenchmen who within the 
last century have contributed to the advance of medicine. 

Instruction. These men have had worthy successors; 
and it may be well briefly to mention a few of the living 



igo MEDICINE 

leaders of French medicine whose influence and inspira- 
tion the student of today may seek. 

Roux, the director of the Pasteur Institute, who 
with Yersin, in 1888, demonstrated the existence of the 
toxin of diphtheria, and later, independently and almost 
simultaneously with Behring, introduced the method 
of treating diphtheria by antitoxin. 

RiCHET, the brilliant professor of physiology, who with 
Hericourt in 1888 demonstrated the presence of antitoxic 
substances in the blood of animals convalescent from infec- 
tious diseases; who in 189 1 made the first sero-therapeutic 
injection in man; who with Portier in 1902 first demon- 
strated the important phenomenon of anaphylaxis. 

Laveran, the distinguished discoverer of the parasites 
of malaria, who from the laboratory of the Institut Pasteur 
is still giving forth valuable contributions to parasitology. 

Landouzy, whose name, with that of Dejerine, is 
associated with a form of muscular atrophy; who has 
contributed to many branches of medicine but especially 
to the study of tuberculosis, pointing out, among the 
earliest, the almost constant relation of tuberculosis to 
the so-called idiopathic sero-fibrinous pleurisy. Dean 
today of the Medical Faculty, he is still active in his 
clinic for tuberculosis at the Hopital Laennec. 

Dejerine, professor at the Faculty, one of the most 
distinguished of living neurologists, author of a monumental 
anatomy of the nervous system and (with Andre- 
Thomas) of the volume on diseases of the spinal cord 
in the "Nouveau Traite de medecine et de therapeutique'' 
(1909); a brilliant clinician whose exercises at the Sal- 
petriere are most stimulating.^ 

Pierre Marie, professor at the Faculty, who first 
described the disease Acromegaly and pointed out its 

^ [His death, since this chapter went to press, is chronicled with 
deepest regret. — Author.] 



MEDICINE 191 

association with tumours of the pituitary body; author 
of many contributions to the science of neurology and 
especially of the admirable "Legons sur les maladies de 
la moelle'' (1892); editor of "La pratique neurologique'' 
(Paris, 8°, Masson, 191 1); presides now over a clinic 
at the Salpetriere. 

Blanchard, professor at the Faculty, who is today 
probably the leading parasitologist of the world. 

WiDAL, professor of medicine, distinguished clinician, 
well known for his adaptation of the Gruber-Durham 
phenomenon to the diagnosis of typhoid fever; who, 
through a long series of studies has made important con- 
tributions to our knowledge of nephritis, as well as 
notable investigations concerning haemolytic jaundice; 
director of a well organized service at the Cochin with 
good laboratories offering an excellent opportunity for 
the well equipped post-graduate student. 

CHAurrARD, professor at the Faculty, a brilliant and 
suggestive clinician; (with Hanot) described pigmentary 
cirrhosis (1882); author of many contributions to various 
branches of medicine, including (with Laederich) an 
excellent work on diseases of the kidney (1909); dis- 
coverer of the nature of haemolytic jaundice (1907); 
director of a service at the Hopital Saint-Antoine. 

Vaquez, agrege, able cHnician, whose studies have 
especially concerned the cardio-vascular apparatus; 
author of many contributions to medical literature; 
discoverer of the disease Polycythaemia, which is some- 
times spoken of as Vaquez' disease; editor of the 
"Archives des maladies du cceur,'' etc.; director of 
an active service at the Saint-Antoine, which should 
offer a good field for post-graduate study. 

Letulle, professor at the Faculty, author of an im- 
portant work on pathological anatomy, director of a 
service at the Hopital Boucicault. 



192 MEDICINE 

Babinski, distinguished neurologist; author of import- 
ant contributions to this branch of medicine; presides 
over a cHnic at the Pitie. 

Marfan, professor at the Faculty, a leading authority 
on diseases of children; one of the ablest and most 
stimulating clinicians in Paris, whose visits at the 
Enfants-Malades, where he directs a service, are always 
replete with suggestion. 

Netter, agrege, who has made many contributions 
to the study of the meningi tides and of poliomyelitis; di- 
rector of a clinic at the Trousseau. 

Gaucher, professor at the Faculty, director of the 
great dermatological cHnic at the Hopital Saint-Louis, 
where almost unequaled advantages are offered for the 
study of diseases of the skin; author of an excellent volume 
on dermatology (1909). 

Gilbert, professor at the Faculty of Medicine, director 
of the old clinic of Trousseau at the Hotel-Dieu, who 
has made many contributions concerning diseases of the 
liver and jaundice; editor of the "Nouveau traite de 
medecine et de therapeutique.'' 

AcHARD, professor at the Faculty, director of a clinic 
at the Hopital Necker, known especially for his studies 
of renal function. 

Janet, professor of psychology at the College de 
France; director of a laboratory at the Salpetriere; 
whose contributions to the study of hysteria are well 
known. 

Labbe, agrege, who has devoted himself especially 
to the diseases of nutrition and metabolism; director of 
a service at the Charite. 

Teissier, agrege, collaborator with Potain in his 
studies on the cardio- vascular system; editor of his 
posthumous volume on the blood pressure; physician at 
the Claude Bernard. 



MEDICINE 193 

GuiLLAiN, agrege, one of the most active and pro- 
ductive of the younger neurologists; director of a clinic 
at the Hopital Cochin. 

Bernard, agrege, whose studies on renal function, on 
the supra-renal glands, and on tuberculosis are well 
known; one of the editors of the admirable "Annales de 
medecine." 

RiST, director of a chnic at the same hospital, a sug- 
gestive clinician who has contributed to many branches 
of medicine. 

Legueu, clinical professor of diseases of the urinary 
tract, director of Guyon's old clinic at the Hopital 
Necker, in whose service the valuable work of Ambard 
on the normal and pathological physiology of the kid- 
neys was done. 

Henriquez, author of valuable work on diseases of the 
digestive tract; director of a service at the Pitie. 

Castaigne, agrege, who has written ably on diseases 
of the kidney and liver. 

These are but a few of the many leaders of modern 
French medicine. 

Good opportunities for study are offered also in the 
well organized clinics of Lyon, where the names of 
Lepine, Teissier, Courmont, Gallavardin, Mouri- 
QUAND, and others, are well known; and in Lille, where 
Calmette, distinguished for his many contributions to 
bacteriology and serology, especially for his discovery of 
anti-venine and for his studies on tuberculosis, presides 
over the Pasteur Institute. 

Opportunities for Graduate Work. There are in 
France few of those regularly organized and rather 
superficial short courses for post-graduate students which 
are so well known in some other continental countries. 
On the other hand, there are good opportunities for 



194 MEDICINE 

the student who desires to pursue research in any 
special branch or to acquire experience in clinical medicine. 

As one looks back over the past hundred and fifty years 
it may be said that the French have excelled as clinical 
observers and as students of the symptomatology of 
disease. They have been pecuHarly talented as clini- 
cians and remarkably acute in the detection of pictures 
of disease by bedside study and investigation, and in the 
correlation of these pictures with the underlying patho- 
logical changes. The same may be said today. In no 
country is the cHnical symptomatology of disease studied 
with greater acuteness or inteUigence than in France. 

The organization of the hospitals as relates to special 
laboratories for experiment and research has hitherto 
not been so attractive as in some other European coun- 
tries; but great advances are being made, and varied 
opportunities for serious post-graduate study may be 
found now in many of the clinics as well as at the Pasteur 
Institute. This is especially true with regard to diseases 
of the nervous system. 

Regular courses of lectures and clinics, all of which 
are open to the public, are given annually by different 
members of the faculty. These exercises, which vary in 
character from year to year, are often as valuable to 
the post-graduate as to the undergraduate student. 
The opportunities for clinical observation in the hos- 
pitals of Paris during the daily public visits of the physi- 
cians are almost unequaled. 

Libraries and Museums. Paris offers also great 
advantages in the way of libraries. The Bibliotheque 
Nationale, with its unrivaled collections, affords every 
opportunity for general study. The Library of the 
Faculty of Medicine, with 160,000 volumes, is accessible 
to all students, and the privilege to work in the Library 



MEDICINE 195 

of the Academy of Medicine may be obtained on special 
presentation. 

The Musee Dupuytren has a valuable collection of 
pathological specimens; and the Musee Orfila at the 
ficole de Medecine is an excellent museum of normal 
anatomy and physiology. Valuable parasitological col- 
lections are also to be found at the laboratory of para- 
sitology, and there are special collections at various 
hospitals. 

Societies. Especially valuable to the post-graduate 
student are the weekly meetings of the Societe de biologic, 
the Societe medicale des hopitaux, as well as the reunions 
of the Academic de Medecine, at which he may listen to 
the discussion of the actuaHties of medicine and biological 
science by the leading students of the day. 



Surgery 



Following the Napoleonic wars there was a rapid ad- 
vance in the French school of surgery, and Paris became 
the center of graduate study for the entire world. 

DupuYTREN (i 777-1835) was the most illustrious 
French surgeon of the first half of the century. His 
clinics at the Hotel-Dieu drew students from all coun- 
tries. His most lasting contributions were in the field 
of surgical pathology. He was the first accurately to 
describe contracture of the palmar fascia and fracture 
about the ankle joint. His treatises on Injuries and 
Diseases of the Bones and Legons Orales were extensively 
translated. Velpeau (i 795-1867) was a great operating 
surgeon, who wrote the first detailed treatise on Surgical 
Anatomy; a three-volume treatise on Operative Surgery, 
and an extensive work on Diseases of the Breast, were 
also among his writings. Velpeau 's bandage for fixa- 
tion of the arm is famiHar to every medical student. 
Malgaigne (1806-65) was well known for his work in 
experimental surgery, especially on the healing of frac- 
tures. His treatise and atlas on fractures and disloca- 
tions remained a classic for many years. He is described 
by Billings as "the greatest surgical historian and critic 
whom the world has yet seen." His historical writings 
dealt especially with the Hippocratic period, and with 
the works of Ambroise Par£, the most famous surgeon 
of the 1 6th century, who at the siege of Damvilliers, in 
1552, had begun to jpractise hemostase by ligation. 

1 [Drafting Committee: A. D. Bevan, University of Chicago; 
D. B. Phemister, University of Chicago. — Ed.] 

196 




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SURGERY 197 

CiviALE was the first to perform lithotrity in 1824. Au- 
guste Nelaton (1807-73) ^^,(1 an international reputation 
as a teacher and operator. He wrote a treatise on surgi- 
cal pathology, and is familiar to the modern student for 
his introduction of a valuable rubber catheter. 

Paul Broca (i 824-1880) was the first great brain 
surgeon, and a leader of the modern French school of 
anthropology. He located the speech center in the 
third left frontal convolution, and introduced the term 
"motor aphasia." He invented craniometry, and was 
an ardent supporter of the theory of evolution; at the 
period of its introduction he was credited with the 
aphorism: "I would rather be a transformed ape than 
a degenerate son of Adam." 

The work of Pasteur revolutionized surgery, as it 
did all of the other special branches of medicine, but the 
French surgeons were not the first to see its great prac- 
tical importance in their particular field. After Lister 
had established antiseptic surgery, it was quickly adopted 
by the French. Lucas-Championniere (d. 1916) was 
its earliest advocate in France and on the continent. 
Aside from his early work on antisepsis and asepsis, he 
wrote an exhaustive treatise on fractures, in which he 
advocated early massage and passive motion as the 
most successful agents for preventing delayed and non- 
union and stiffness of neighboring joints. 

Overlapping the antiseptic period were a number of 
well known French surgeons. Ollier (182 5-1 900), of 
Lyon, did the most extensive and valuable experimental 
work of the century on bone regeneration and trans- 
plantation. His pathological and clinical writings on 
diseases of the bones are noteworthy contributions. 
Fehx GuYON (1831-1903) was one of the great genito- 
urinary surgeons of his time. His clinic at Hopital 
Necker attracted students from all over the world. 



igS MEDICINE 

Reverdin, of Geneva, belonged to the French school, 
and is famous for his method of skin grafting, and for his 
needle which is still extensively used in France. 

Many of the French surgeons who have contributed 
so largely to the advances in aseptic surgery are still 
living or have died only in recent years. Terrier 
(183 7-1 908) contributed extensively to the development 
of abdominal surgery, especially to the operative treat- 
ment of gall-stone disease. Berger (i 845-1 908) was 
best known for his operative treatment of fracture 
of the patella and interscapulothoracic amputation. 
Reclus has taken a leading part in the development of 
local anaesthesia. For twenty years he has performed 
about two thirds of the operations in his clinic at the 
Hotel-Dieu under local anaesthesia. Jaboulay, of Lyon, 
showed the relation between the cervical sympathetic 
ganglia and the thyroid gland, and introduced cervical 
sympathectomy for the treatment of exophthalmic 
goitre. Felix Lejars is one of the ablest surgical anat- 
omists of the day. His book on emergency surgery 
has been translated into many languages. Edmund 
Delorme (1847-) has been a prominent figure in 
French military surgery, and introduced the operation 
of pulmonary decortication in chronic empyema. Doyen 
(d. 191 7) was a brilliant operator, and is well known for 
his numerous improvements in operative technique and 
as the inventor of a number of valuable surgical instru- 
ments. His magnificent private hospital, excelled by 
none in its equipment, was in 191 7 placed at the disposal 
of the American Red Cross, under Dr. J. A. Blake. 

The names of the leaders in surgery of today will be found 
in the list of the staff members of the Paris hospitals. 

Instruction. The opportunities for graduate work in 
surgery that attract the American student to France 











J^-*'- '> 








AUGUSTE NELATON (1807-1873) 





medicine: surgery 



SURGERY 199 

are found almost entirely at the University of Paris. 
Of the specialties that are found at some of the pro- 
vincial Universities — such as legal medicine at Lyon — 
space does not here permit an account. 

The French school of surgery has been renowned for 
its efficiency in anatomy, many of the ablest clinicians 
having advanced from anatomy into surgery. Conse- 
quently, excellent opportunities for work in surgical 
anatomy and operative surgery are to be had, particu- 
larly in the department of anatomy at the ficole Pratique, 
which is under the direction of Nicolas. The undergrad- 
uate work in surgery is taught in the surgical divisions 
of the various city hospitals, the staffs of which are 
controlled by the University. It is in connection with 
these clinics that the best opportunities for graduate 
work are to be found. Students work on the service as 
clinical clerks, have ward walks with the chief and staff, 
attend the operations and cHnics, and work in the out- 
patient department. It is possible under certain condi- 
tions for graduate students to secure these positions, 
which are analogous to clinical clerkships in the English 
schools. Special courses in diagnosis and operative 
courses on the cadaver in general surgery and the various 
specialties are given from time to time by the assistants 
in some of the clinics. Laboratories are attached to cer- 
tain clinics where opportunities for pathological, bac- 
teriological and research work are to be had. 

General surgery. In most of the hospitals there is no 
division of the surgical service; general surgery, genito- 
urinary surgery, and gynecology being done by the same 
staff. The principal hospitals with their chief and as- 
sistant attending surgeons at the onset of the war were 
as follows: — Hopital Beaujon: Tuefier, with Bazy and 
MiCHAUx. Hopital Bichat: Morestin and staff. Ho- 
pital Cochin: Quenu, with Schwartz and Faure. 



200 MEDICINE 

Hospice des Enfants-Assistes: Jalaguier and Veau. 
Hopital des Enfants-Malades: Kirmisson, with Broca 
and Perrin. Hotel Dieu: Reclus, with Potherat 
and Pierre Descamps. Hopital Laennec: Hartmann, 
with Sauve. Hopital Lariboisiere : Chaput, Reynier 
and Picque; Oto-rhino-laryngology, Sebileau. Hopital 
Necker: Pierre Delbet, with Routier; Genito-urinary, 
Legueu. Hopital de la Pi tie: Walther and Arrou. 
Hopital Saint- Antoine: Lejars and Ricard. Hopital 
Saint-Louis: Beurnier, Rieffel, Rochard, and 
MoucHET. Hospice de la Salpetriere: Gosset. 

Gynecology, Most of the gynecology is done as a part 
of general surgery; but the gynecological clinic of the 
University is at Hopital Broca, under the headship of 
Pozzi. Ward walks, operations, and clinics are held in 
the forenoon. Special courses in diagnosis and operative 
gynecology are given by the assistants in the department 
by arrangement. There is a very efi&cient gynecological 
service at the Hopital Cochin in charge of Dr. Faure. 
No regular instruction is given here, but the operations 
and ward walks are open to visitors and will be found 
of extreme interest. 

Genito-urinary surgery. The French school has long 
held a leading place in the field of genito-urinary surgery. 
The University clinic is located at Hopital Necker. The 
chair of surgery (formerly occupied by Guyon and 
Albarran) is now held by Legueu. Special courses 
are given by the chief of staff and assistants as follows: 
Climes, by Legueu; Diagnostic courses, by Papin; 
Polyclinic and out-patient courses, by Marsan and 
Dichirara; Practical courses in urine examination, 
functional tests, etc.,byAMBARD; Genito-urinary pathol- 
ogy and bacteriology, by Verliac; Cystoscopy, by 
Papin; Ureteroscopy, by Marsan; Electrotherapeutics, 

by COURTADE. 



SURGERY 20I 

Foreign students may be attached to the clinic as 
monitors for periods of 6 to 12 months. Special after- 
noon courses for foreign students in cystoscopy and 
diagnosis and in operative surgery on the male and female 
are given according to demand. 

Orthopedic and Children's Surgery, Special courses 
in diagnosis and treatment are offered as follows: — Hopital 
Trousseau: Savariaud. Hopital des Enfants-Malades: 
Kermisson with Broca. Hopital de la Charite: Special 
clinic on diseases of bones and joints by Mandaire. 

In the large orthopedic hospital at Berck-sur-mer, 
Calot offers special diagnostic and therapeutic courses 
during the summer months. 

Oto-rhino-laryngology, The University clinic is located 
at Hopital Lariboisiere, under the direction of Sebileau. 
There is a large ward and out-patient service, and in 
addition to the routine work of the clinics special courses 
are given upon request. 



Pathology' 

The term Pathology is here used to comprise morbid 
anatomy, bacteriology, and hygiene. 

General Courses. In the University of Paris certain 
courses in the regular curriculum belong properly to 
the field of Pathology. They are briefly as follows: a 
course in general pathology, by Castaigne; a course 
in pathological anatomy, by Pierre Marie, assisted by 
Roussy; a course in the history of medicine and surgery, 
by Letulle; a course in hygiene, by Chantemesse; 
and a course in experimental and comparative pathology, 
by Roger. These courses are accompanied by practical 
laboratory work- 
Other courses are given in Paris in institutes afiiliated 
with the University. Among such courses are those 
in bacteriology and hematological technic, by Roger; 
in parasitology, by Blanchard; and in tropical pathology 
and hygiene, by Wurtz; all given at the Institute of 
Colonial Medicine (Institut de Medecine coloniale). 
Completion of the course in colonial medicine in this 
institution entitles the graduate to a special diploma in 
the subject, given by the University of Paris (Diplome 
de Medecine coloniale). 

The course in Medical Microbiology, given each year 
at the Pasteur Institute in Paris from November 15th to 
March 15th, is perhaps the most famous, complete, and 
practical course in this subject given anywhere in the 
world. It is offered by the division of microbiology 
under the direction of Roux and with the immediate 
^ [Drafting Committee; F. P. Gay, University of California. — Ed.] 

202 




medicine: pathology 



PATHOLOGY 203 

laboratory supervision of Borrel, Nicolle, and others. 
Completion of satisfactory work in this course leads to a 
certificate from the Institute (Certificat de presence et 
d 'etudes). 

Special Research. Opportunities for advanced study 
of special problems are afforded in the University labora- 
tories in pathology, hygiene, and also particularly in 
connection with the various hospitals which are affiliated 
with the University. It is sufficient comment on the 
true investigative spirit of the French to note that these 
opportunities are not listed in their catalogues. They 
depend on the particular desire of a graduate student 
to do some definite piece of work, and on the attraction 
of some particular man's name or personaHty to decide 
him where that work shall be done. Graduate study is 
represented by no definite curriculum and by a reward in 
the shape of a diploma in its initial phases only. True 
graduate study, even in medicine, consists essentially in 
the personal stimulation of some particular master 
and the intensive study of some specialty or the inves- 
tigation of some particular problem. 

The practical aspects of pathological research, in its 
bearing on clinical diagnosis, are well exemplified in 
Paris, where many able practitioners are also pathol- 
ogists of note. Men like Maurice Letulle and Nattan- 
Larrier may be mentioned in this connection. 

The opportunities for advanced scientific research in 
Paris are more specifically available in connection with 
the Pasteur Institute. This institute is divided into 
several services which deal in turn with the practical 
applications in preventive and curative medicine, par- 
ticularly in relation to the infectious diseases. There 
is a clinic for the preventive treatment of rabies, under 
the direction of Chaillon and Viala, and a service of 
serum therapy under the direction of Martin with the 



204 MEDICINE 

assistance of Dopter. These two services include the 
Pasteur Hospital for the treatment of those infectious 
diseases which the Institute has studied or is studying. 
In addition to these more practical apphcations of 
the scientific advances in pathology is the service of 
scientific research (Service de Recherches scientifiques) 
so-called, formerly under the direction of the late EHe 
Metchnikoff, and including such men as Besredka, 
Burnet-, Dujardin-Beaumetz, and Levaditi. There 
is also the service of colonial microbiology (Micro- 
biologie coloniale) with Laveran and Mesnil. The 
mention of these names alone is sufficient to indicate 
the type of original investigation that is going on, and 
in which properly accredited investigators may par- 
ticipate for a nominal fee to pay the expense of material. 
Space permits no extended reference to the general 
medical curriculum in the universities of France outside 
of Paris. As examples of more advanced work certain 
men may be mentioned in connection with some of 
these universities, as for example: Rodet in Mont- 
pellier, Courmont in Lyon, and particularly Calmette 
in Lille. Lille possesses, in addition to the university, 
a Pasteur Institute under the direction of Calmette, 
with whom are associated Breton and Guerin, whose 
work in occupational diseases and particularly in tuber- 
culosis is well known. 



Philology 

INCLUDING 

CLASSICAL, ROMANCE, ORIENTAL, 

SEMITIC, AND ENGLISH 

PHILOLOGY 



Classical Philology 

LATIN' 

The Renaissance had its birth in Italy, and Italy 
gives her name to the first period of classical scholarship. 
To the second, France gives hers. If we set aside Eras- 
mus, Dutch by birth, and Lrpsius, Belgian, we may say 
that by far the commanding figures in Latin philology 
in the sixteenth century are the French scholars Bude, 
who was the first important worker in Roman law and 
Roman coinage; Robert Estienne, lexicographer and 
editor; Muret, Turnebe, and Lambin, critics and 
editors; Casaubon, editor, and founder of the study of 
ancient life; Pithou, editor, and active collector of 
manuscripts; and Scaliger the younger, the greatest 
scholar of his time, — critic, editor, epigraphist, numis- 
matist, and chronologist. 

In the seventeenth century the lead was taken by 
the English and the Dutch. Nevertheless, France 
produced three notable scholars: Saumaise, text critic 
and commentator; Du Cange, lexicographer of medi- 
aeval Latin; and Mabillon, who, at the instance of 
the Benedictine order, set himself especially to the study 
of the methods of determining the genuineness of manu- 
scripts and their dates. From the resulting work, "De 
Re Diploma tica," sprang the science of Latin palae- 
ography. 

The love of Latin studies persisted in the eighteenth 
century in France with undiminished vigor, but without 

^ [Drafting Committee: Wm. Gardner Hale, University of Chicago; 
E. K. Rand, Harvard University. — Ed.] 

207 



2o8 PHILOLOGY 

noteworthy originality, except in the case of Mont- 
FAUCON, who endeavored to present antiquity visually 
to the modern reader by the publication of drawings of 
ancient monuments ("Antiquite appliquee et representee 
en figures' 0- 

In the latter part of the eighteenth century Germany 
took the lead, under the influence of Wolf, the founder 
of modern philology. About the middle of the nine- 
teenth century, modem philology became a possession 
of all nations. France took her part, attaining in 
the latter part of the century the high rank which 
she now holds, with certain distinguished and precious 
characteristics of her own. Her rise to eminence was 
gradual. 

Beginning in 1837, Quicherat put forth work of high 
importance in his treatise on Latin versification, his 
lexicon of Latin poetry, and his edition of the Latin 
lexicographer and grammarian Nonius Marcellus. The 
middle of the century (to speak roughly) was character- 
ized by admirable literary studies like those of Nisard 
on the Latin poets of the decadence (1834), the first 
important work of this peculiarly French type; of Con- 
stant Martha on the moralists of the Empire (1864) and 
on morals, religion, and science in the poem of Lucretius 
(1869); of Patin on Latin poetry (1869); ^^ Boissier 
(who continued his work into the present century) on 
Cicero and his friends (1865) and on Roman religion 
(1874); and the striking essays of Taine on Livy (1856) 
and Sa^nte-Beuve on Virgil (1857). These two essays, 
the work of men primarily engaged in other fields, ex- 
emplify the exceptional sympathy with humanistic 
studies with which the French literary mind is generally 
endowed; and correspondingly the writings of profes- 
sional Latinists in France, while marked by a pene- 
trating precision, are characterized as a rule by an acute 



CLASSICAL PHILOLOGY 209 

and sensitive literary appreciation. The combination 
of these qualities in classical investigation is as important 
as it is rare. 

The rise in France of the modern scientific spirit in 
Latin studies is due in good part (not to speak of scholars 
happily still living) to Thurot, who earnestly advocated 
the double ideal of literary appreciation and scientific 
method; to Benoist, who urged the return to manu- 
scripts in constituting a text, as against the acceptance 
of tradition; to Weil, whose doctorate dissertation on 
the order of words in the ancient languages (1844) 
inaugurates the scientific study of the subject; and to a 
group of men of high achievement whose names bring 
us to the present century. Among these, special men- 
tion may be made of Riemann, syntacticist (whose 
premature death cannot be too much regretted) ; Delisle, 
whose researches in palaeography and the history of 
mediaeval libraries have contributed greatly to our 
knowledge of the preservation and transmission of 
Latin texts; Breal, comparative philologist, with a 
wide range in Latin philology, including the dialects, 
and the science of semantics, which he established and 
named; Victor Henry, comparative philologist; Antoine, 
syntacticist; Emile Jacob, editor; Daremberg, who pro- 
jected the **Dictionnaire des Antiquites grecques et 
romaines'*; and Saglio, who was for many years its 
editor. 

Among living workers now in retirement. Max Bonnet 
demands special notice for his exhaustive book (1890) 
on the Latin of Gregory of Tours, important alike for 
Latin in its decadence and for the Romance languages 
in their origins; and for his study of the principal Paris 
manuscript of Catullus (1871), a work performed with 
a penetration and accuracy which were very rare at the 
time, and are not common now. And mention should 



2IO PHILOLOGY 

also be made of fimile Thomas, author of many mono- 
graphs and editions of classical authors (Cicero, Cat- 
ullus, Petronius, Servius), and of a vivid presentation 
of Roman civilization under the early empire ('^Rome et 
TEmpire aux deux premiers siecles de notre ere," 1897). 

Instruction at the Universities. The remainder of 
our account concerns the men who are now teaching in 
universities or other institutions of similar rank. It 
is to be regretted that the limits of our task make it 
necessary to omit the names of a number of distinguished 
scholars who are not attached to any teaching body. 

The attribution "Paris" is to be understood as cover- 
ing the University of Paris (which includes the Ecole 
Normale Superieure), the College de France, the ficole 
Pratique des Hautes Etudes, and the Ecole Nationale 
des Chartes. The teaching in these different institu- 
tions in Paris is to a large extent connected, and all of 
it will be available. The professors will be found to be 
cordial and generous of help in their dealings with their 
students. It may here be noted also that, outside of the 
teaching institutions, Paris and its neighborhood afford 
rich material for the advanced scholar in certain fields. 
The general reading room of the Bibliotheque Nationale 
contains a splendid working library for students of the 
classics and related subjects; while the Salle des Manu- 
scrits, in the same building, has a smaller but generally 
sufficient collection of texts and works of reference, with 
the largest apparatus of catalogues of manuscripts 
anywhere to be found. The distinguished curator of 
manuscripts, Henri Omont, is one of the most genial 
and helpful of librarians. Finally, the department of 
Greek and Roman Antiquities in the Louvre, and the 
Museum of Saint Germain, are extraordinarily rich in 
material that concerns the classical student; and their 



CLASSICAL PHILOLOGY 211 

curators (respectively Heron be Villefosse and Salomon 
Reinach) are among the most eminent of specialists. 

In addition to his speciaHzed training, the student in a 
French university will be under the constant influence of 
admirable models of the art of exposition. Almost 
invariably the French lecturer, whatever his subject, 
handles it with a large and philosophical grasp, with an 
instinctive sense of organization, and with an animation 
and charm of manner not often matched in other coun- 
tries. 

The opportunities which Paris offers to the student of 
Latin are thus seen to be great. But it should also be 
understood that the faculties of the provincial universities 
contain many scholars of high ability and accomplish- 
ment. 

In the following exhibition of the types of work 
prosecuted by French Latinists who are now engaged 
in teaching, names of leading scholars are selected, 
many that deserve mention being necessarily omitted. 
In the case of each one given, the prominent line or 
lines of activity, so far as publication shows, will be 
indicated by a statement or by the title of a book. 
But it should be borne in mind that many scholars for 
whom a technical specialty is mentioned work in the 
field of literary interpretation and criticism as well, and 
vice versa. 

With allowance for these crossings of lines, the names 
are arranged under the order of the groups (i) literature 
and criticism, (2) grammar (sounds, inflexions, syntax, 
etc.), (3) metrics and prose rhythms, (4) palaeography, 
epigraphy, numismatics, (5) history, institutions, religion, 
antiquities, (6) topography, geography. 

Havet, of Paris, has worked in critical editing ("Plauti 
Amphitruo,'' 1895; "Notes critiques sur le texte de 
Festus," 1914), in versification, in the metrics of prose 



212 PHILOLOGY 

("La prose metrique de Symmaque et les origines du 
Cursus," 1892), in pronunciation, in word-order, and in 
the principles of criticism ("Manuel de critique verbale 
appliquee aux textes latins," 191 1). Monceaux, of 
Paris, has worked especially in the literary history of 
Christian Africa ("Histoire litteraire de I'Afrique chre- 
tienne,'' 1901-12), and in the Christian epigraphy of 
Africa ("Enquete sur Fepigraphie chretienne d'Afrique," 
in each number of the "Revue Archeologique'' since 
1903). Lejay, of the Catholic Institute, Paris, has 
worked especially in Horace (the Satires were pub- 
lished in 191 2, and the Epistles are now in hand), and 
in syntax ("Le progres de Tanalyse dans la syntaxe 
latine,'' 1909; several editions of Riemann's "Syntaxe 
Latine")j and is a constant contributor to the "Revue de 
Philologie," of which he is one of the editors. Plessis, 
of Paris, has pubHshed upon Latin poetry ("La poesie 
latine," 1909; Etudes critiques sur Properce," 1889), 
and upon versification ("Traite de metrique grecque et 
latine," 1889), and is now engaged upon the Odes and 
Epodes of Horace, complementing the work of Lejay. 
Go;elzer, of Paris, has worked especially in the charac- 
teristics of later Latin ("Etude lexicographique et gram- 
matical de la latinite de Saint Jerome," 1884; "Le 
latin de Saint Avit," 1909), in Tacitus, and in com- 
parative grammar ("Grammaire comparee du grec et 
du latin," 2 vols., 1897 and 1901, the most considerable 
work of its kind produced in France). Jules Martha, of 
Paris, has published upon Cicero ("Brutus," 1892; 
"Comment Cicero est arrive aux honneurs," 1903). 

Cartault, of Paris, has pubHshed upon Horace (the 
Satires, 1899), Tibullus and the authors of the Corpus 
TibuUianum (1909), the elegiac distich in Tibullus, 
Sulpicia, and Lygdamus (191 1), Virgil and Lucretius, 
CouRBAUD, of Paris, has pubHshed upon Cicero ("De 



CLASSICAL PHILOLOGY 213 

Oratore," I, 1905), and upon Horace ("Horace; sa vie 
et sa pensee a I'epoque des epitres," 1914). Collignon, 
of Nancy, has published upon Petronius (''Etude sur 
Petrone," 1892; "Petrone en France/' 1905). Ernout, 
of Lille, has published upon Lucretius (Book IV, intro- 
duction, text, translation, notes, 191 5) and upon the 
vocabulary, syntax, and morphology of Latin ("Le 
parler de Preneste,'' 1905; "Morphologie historique du 
latin," 1914). Lataye, of Paris, has pubHshed upon 
Statins, upon Catullus, Ovid, Terence, and their Greek 
models ("Le modele de Terence dans FHecyre," 19 16), 
upon institutions and religion, and upon inscriptions. 
He is editor, with Pottier, of the "Dictionnaire des 
antiquites grecques et romaines," and a large contributor 
to it. For his epigraphical work, see under Cagnat. 

BoRNECQUE, of Lille, has pubHshed upon Seneca 
Rhetor (text, translation, notes, 1902), upon the metrics 
of prose ("Les clausules metriques latines," 1907), arid 
upon history ("Rome et les Romains,'' in collaboration 
with Dornet, 191 2). Fabia, of Lyon, has published upon 
Caesar, the Prologues of Terence, Tacitus ("Les sources 
de Tacite dans lesHistoires et les Annales," 1893; "Ono- 
masticon Taciteum,'' 1900), and Roman history and 
institutions. De la Ville de Mirmont, of Bordeaux, has 
published upon Livius Andronicus, Laevius, Ausonius, 
Ovid, Virgil, and early Latin poetry ("Etudes sur Fan- 
cienne poesie latine,'' 1903). Vallette, of Rennes, has 
pubhshed upon Apuleius ("L'Apologie d'Apulee,'' 1908). 
Constans, of Aix-Marseille, has pubHshed upon SaUust 
and Tacitus ("Etudes sur la langue de Tacite,'' 1893). 

Mace, of Rennes, has published upon Suetonius and 
upon pronunciation ("Essai sur Suetone," 1900). 
Delaruelle, of Toulouse, has pubHshed upon Cicero 
("Etude critique sur le texte du De Divinatione," 191 1). 
R. Waltz, of Lyon, has published upon Seneca ("Seneca 



214 PHILOLOGY 

de Otio/' 1909; "La vie politique de Seneque," 1916). 
DuRAND, of Paris, has published upon Cicero ("La 
date du De Divinatione/' 1903). Thiaucourt, of Nancy, 
has published upon Cicero, St. Augustine, and Sallust 
("Les Academiques de Ciceron et le Contra Academicos 
de Saint Augustin,'' 1903). Lecrivain, of Toulouse, 
has published on the Historia Augusta and on institu- 
tions ("Etudes sur I'histoire auguste,'' 1904). Ramain, 
of Montpellier, has published upon the use of the Codex 
Bembinus in the restoration of the text of Terence (1904), 
and upon word-groups in the versification of the dramatic 
poets (1904). 

Meillet, of Paris, has worked over a wide range in 
the field of linguistics ("De quelques innovations de la 
declinaison latine," 1906; "Linguistique,^' 1911; "In- 
troduction a Tetude comparative des langues indo- 
europeennes," 3rd ed., 191 2; "L 'Evolution des formes 
grammaticales," 191 2). Vendryes, of Paris, has 
worked in linguistics ("Recherches sur I'histoire et 
les effets de Tintensite initiale," 1902; "De Hibernicis 
vocabulis quae a Latina Kngua origines duxerunt," 1902; 
"Sur I'hypothese d'un futur en italoceltique," 1909). 
Gapfiot, of Paris, has pubHshed especially upon syntax 
("Le Subjonctif de subordination en latin," 1906; "Pour 
le vrai latin," 1909). Marouzeau, of Paris, has pub- 
lished upon forms, order, and syntax ("Sur la forme du 
passif parfait latin," 1909; "Place du pronom personnel 
sujet en latin," 1907; "L'Emploi du participe present 
latin a Tepoque repubhcaine," 191 1). Chabert, of 
Grenoble, has pubHshed especially upon syntax ("De 
Latinitate Marcelli in Kbro de Medicamentis," 1897; 
"Marcellus de Bordeaux et la syntaxe frangaise," 1901.) 

AuDOUiN, of Poitiers, has pubHshed upon inflexions 
and upon meters ("De la decHnaison dans les langues 
indo-europeennes," 1898). Grammont, of MontpelHer, 



1 




-^ — ^ — — -—^ 





EMILE CHATELAIN (1851-) 



CLASSICAL PHILOLOGY 



CLASSICAL PHILOLOGY 215 

has published upon sounds ("La dissimilation consonnan- 
tique/' 1895). Vernier, of Besangon, has published on 
versification ("Sur un passage de PEpitre aux Pisons'^: 
"Horace et Boileau juges de Fancienne versification," 

1903)- 

Chatelain, of Paris, has published a long and im- 
portant list of works in palaeography (" Paleographie 
des classiques latins; collection de fac-similes des princi- 
paux manuscrits," 1884-1900; "Introduction a la 
lecture des notes tironiennes,'' 1900; "UnciaHs scrip tura 
codicum Latinorum no vis exemplis illustrata," 1901; 
"Les palimpsestes latins," 1905; "Lucretius, codex 
Vossianus quadratus," 1913). Prou, of Paris, has pub- 
lished upon palaeography ("Recueil de fac-similes d'ecri- 
ture du v^ au xif siecle," 1904; "Manuel de paleo- 
graphie latine et frangaise," 3d ed., 1910). Cagnat, 
of Paris, has worked in epigraphy, antiquities, history, 
chronology, geography. (The list of his pubhcations is 
very long, including: "L'annee epigraphique," 1888 to 
the present time, since 1900 in collaboration with Besnier; 
"Explorations epigraphiques et archeologiques en 
Tunisie," 1883-86; "Cours d'epigraphie latine," 4th ed., 
1914; "Corpus Inscriptionum Lat. VIII, Supplementum," 
Pars I, in collaboration with J. Schmidt, 1891; Pars II, 
in collaboration with J. Schmidt, 1904; "Inscriptiones 
Graecae ad res Romanas pertinentes," Vol. I with Toutain 
and Jouguet, 1911, Vol. Ill with Lafaye, 1905; "Les bi- 
bliotheques municipales dans Tempire romain," 1906; 
"Carthage, Timgad, Tebessa, et les villes antiques de 
TAfrique du Nord," 1909). Jouguet, of Lille, has pub- 
Hshed in epigraphy (see under Cagnat above) and in history 
and institutions ("La vie municipale dans TEgypte ro- 
maine," 191 1 ; also ' 'Papyrus de Theadelphie," 191 1 ; " Sup- 
plement aux papyrus de Theadelphie,"i9i2). Babelon, 
of Paris, has worked especially in numismatics ("Trait6 



2i6 PHILOLOGY 

des monnaies grecques et romaines," 1901-; "Moneta," 
1914). He is a large contributor to the ^^Dictionnaire des 
antiquites.'' 

Bouche-Leclercq, of Paris, is engaged upon history 
and institutions ("RepubHque et empire/' 1909; "L 'Intol- 
erance religieuse et la politique/' 1911;*^ Manuel des insti- 
tutions romaines/' 1886). Block, of Paris, has published 
upon history and institutions ("La plebe romaine," 
1911; "La republique romaine," 1913). He has con- 
tributed many articles to the "Dictionnaire des 
antiquites." Gsell, of Paris, has published especially 
upon the history and archaeology of North Africa 
("Algerie et Tunisie," 191 1; "Atlas archeologique de 
TAlgerie," 1911; "Histoire ancienne de TAfrique du 
Nord," 1913). AuDOLLENT, of Clermont, has published 
on institutions, inscriptions, and topography ("Defixio- 
num tabellae quotquot innotuerunt," 1904; "Carthage 
romaine," 1901). Boxler, of the Institut Catholique, 
Paris, has published on institutions ("Precis des institu- 
tions publiques de la Grece et de Rome," 1903). Tou- 
TAiN, of Paris, has worked especially in religion and 
epigraphy ("Les cultes paiens dans Tempire romain," 
1907, 1 911; "Etudes de mythologie et d'histoire des 
religions antiques," 1909; many articles in the "Diction- 
naire des antiquites." For epigraphy, see under Cagnat). 
Renel, of Lyons, has published on religion ("Cultes 
militaires de Rome," 1903; "Les religions de la Gaule 
avant le Christianisme," 1906; many articles in the 
"Dictionnaire des antiquites.") Degert, of the Institut 
CathoHque, Toulouse, has published on moral ideas 
and characteristics ("Les idees morales de Ciceron/' 
1909). Heron de Villefosse, of Paris, has published 
extensively on antiquities ("Le tresor de Boscoreale," 
1899; "Crustae aut emblemata," 1903; "Deux inscrip- 
tions relatives a des generaux pompeiens," 1898). 



CLASSICAL PHILOLOGY 217 

Besnier, of Caen, has worked especially in geography, 
topography, and epigraphy ("La geographie economique 
du Maroc dans Tantiquite,'^ 1906; "L'lle tiberine dans 
Tantiquite,'' 1902; "Lexique de geographie ancienne,'' 
1 9 14; "Recueil des inscriptions antiques du Maroc," 
1904. See also under Cagnat). 

GREEK ' 

France in the early ages of the revival of Greek studies 
was the home of many noted scholars, — such as Robertus 
Stephanus, Henricus Stephanus (Robert and Henri 
Estienne), Turnebe, Lambin, Muret, Montfaucon, 
Casaubon, and the two Scaligers. All of these men 
in modern esteem hold positions of unquestioned leader- 
ship, and much of their work has not been superseded or 
improved. 

This heritage has passed to worthy heirs, and during 
the last century France has had many eminent Greek 
scholars. Boissonade was editor of many previously 
unpublished Greek writers; among his productions were 
twenty-four volumes in an annotated series of the Greek 
poets, five volumes of Anecdota Graeca; he is especially 
famous as being the first editor of the poet Babrius. 
BuRNOUE was editor of a most valuable Greek Grammar; 
Patin, author of a series of sympathetic and learned 
comments on the Greek Tragic poets; Alexandre, 
editor of the Sibylline Oracles; Littre, famous both as a 
physician and a scholar, editor and translator of Hip- 
pocrates in ten volumes; Miller, one of the most expert 
of palaeographers, and the editor of many works which 
had not been previously published; Martin, author of 
important works in Music, Astronomy, Geometry, and 

^ [Drafting Committee: J. A. Scott, Northwestern University. — 
Ed.] 



2i8 PHILOLOGY 

Anatomy; Tannery, author of a standard work on Greek 
Science; Daremberg and Saglio, editors of the famous 
Dictionary of Antiquities; Thurot, one of the best inter- 
preters of the works of Aristotle; Weil, editor and 
commentator in many fields of Greek Language and 
Literature; C. Lenormant and his son, F. Lenormant, 
authors of works of the greatest importance on Numis- 
matics, Sculpture, and Epigraphy. Such men as 
BuRNOUE, Dumont, Reinach, Foucart, Homolle, and 
Haussoullier, partly of this and partly of the preceding 
generation, are everywhere regarded as among the leading 
scholars and interpreters of Hellenic Hfe and culture. 

The grasp and productivity of some of these men passes 
behef; e.g., Salomon Reinach's pubHshed works up to 
1 91 4 amounted to over 60 volumes and nearly 3000 
separate articles, and as he was not born until 1858 
this means an average of one book every six months 
and an article every four days of his adult career. 

The History of Greek Literature (five volumes of 
nearly 4000 pages) by Maurice and Alfred Croiset is the 
best that has been written in any language, showing 
not only broad and exact learning, but in particular a 
fine and sympathetic appreciation of the spirit of the 
Greeks. 

Berard, by his efforts to identify sites which had 
been regarded as purely mythical, and by his proofs of 
the great importance of a knowledge of geography in 
understanding early history, has created a new field of 
research. 

PsiCHARi is the recognized leader of those writers who 
are elevating the vernacular of Modern Greek to the 
dignity of a literary language, and who by their own 
productions are giving it a literature. 

This list of conspicuous Hellenic scholars might be 
multiplied, since in every field of Greek studies a place 




HENRI WEIL (1818-1901) 




CLASSICAL PHILOLOGY 



CLASSICAL PHILOLOGY 219 

of eminence is held by one or more French scholars. 
The thing which stamps their learning with its own 
peculiar mark is literary appreciation and sanity, since 
few of the phantastic theories which have wasted and 
diverted sound scholarship originated in France. 

Museums and Libraries. Paris, because of its valuable 
collections of many of the most important Greek manu- 
scripts, its original works of Greek art, its unrivaled 
wealth in collections of inscriptions, and its immense 
libraries, offers to students of Greek Hfe, history, Htera- 
ture, or language, facihties possessed by no other center 
of learning. This preeminence in original material has 
drawn to Paris most of the great scholars of France. 
Accordingly American students in Greek will find it to 
their advantage to begin, at least, their work in Paris; 
hence the work done in other parts of France wiU be 
passed by in this brief summary. 

Courses. In Paris, courses in Palaeography and Epig- 
raphy are given by Holleaux, Homolle, Haussoullier, 
and FoucART. As the French conducted the important 
excavations at Delos and Delphi, an unprecedented 
wealth of material came into their possession, and most 
of the inscriptions thus found have been interpreted by 
these four scholars. Courses in Greek History and Ge- 
ography are given by Berard, Bouche-Leclercq, Glotz, 
and Babelon. Here too the abundance of original mate- 
rial has given these scholars peculiar advantages. 

Courses in Greek Language and Literature are given 
by Maurice and Alfred Croiset, Puech, Girard, 
BouRGUET, Mazon, Jacob, Jouguet, Serruys, Breal, 
Desrousseaux, Havet, and Toutain. Even this list 
makes no reference to the courses in Greek Art, Greek 
Philosophy, Latin, Sanskrit, or to the many courses of 
great interest to Greek students in allied departments. 



220 PHILOLOGY 

Periodicals. The following journals and periodicals, 
dealing entirely or in part with Greek, are published by 
French scholars: "Bulletin de correspondance hellenique"; 
*^Revue archeologique" ; "Revue critique"; "Revue de 
philologie'^; "Revue des etudes grecques"; "Revue des 
etudes anciennes"; also many other periodicals of a 
more general nature which frequently contain articles 
of value on Greek subjects. 



Romance Philology' 

The student of Neo-Latin naturally directs his steps 
to one of the Latin lands, and with double profit; for, 
although the honor of first placing Romance Hnguistics 
on a scientific basis was achieved by a German, F. C. 
DiEZ (i 794-1 876), and although Germany is still an 
abundant and able contributor, the countries that can 
now boast of the greatest number of truly eminent 
Romance scholars are Italy and France. Of these, 
France, with her concentration of intellectual fife, offers 
the better facilities for study. From early times, Paris 
has been the center where the leading men of other 
Romance countries — princes, statesmen, scholars, and 
men of letters — have sought their education and re- 
ceived much of their best inspiration; and through 
them, of course, Parisian influence has reached the 
peoples from which they came. At the present day, 
Paris offers the student an unequalled opportunity to 
come into contact with cultivated and prominent rep- 
resentatives of the various Romance nations, and to 
learn to understand the spirit that animates them — 
that Latin genius which has already given the world 
three great civilizations, the Roman, the Neo-Latin 
culture of Europe, and the Hispanic civilization in 
America. 

The essential unity of the principal Romance tongues 
was recognized by French scholarship as early as the 

1 [Drafting Committee: C. H. Grandgent, Harvard University; 
H. R. Lang, Yale University; Kenneth McKenzie, University of 
Illinois; Raymond Weeks, Columbia University. — Ed.] 

221 



222 PHILOLOGY 

1 6th century, and notably by H. Estienne, who found 
their source in popular rather than in literary Latin. 
To that century belongs also the first edition of the 
invaluable " Glossarium ad Scriptores mediae et infimae 
Latinitatis" by Du Cange. Nevertheless, despite some 
lexicographical and speculative studies, Romance phil- 
ology made little headway for some two hundred and 
fifty years. Then, between 1815 and 1845, appeared 
the stimulating works, " Grammaire romane," "Grammaire 
comparee des langues de TEurope latine,'^ "Lexique 
roman, ou Dictionnaire de la langue des troubadours," 
of F. J. M. Raynouard, a pioneer who might have 
anticipated Diez, had he been more accurately schooled 
in phonology, and less dominated by a preconceived idea 
that mediaeval Provencal (or "Roman," as he called 
it) represented an intermediate stage between Latin and 
all the modern forms of Romance speech. His " Lexique," 
with a recent supplement by Levy, is still the standard 
Old Provencal dictionary. The Old French vocabulary 
was industriously listed by F. Godefroy in his "Dic- 
tionnaire de I'ancienne langue frang:aise" (1881-1902). 
Meanwhile (1872-79) E. Littre had published his 
historical "Dictionnaire de la langue frangaise," a model 
for all subsequent lexicographers, and in particular for 
A. Hatzfeld, a. Darmesteter, and A. Thomas, authors 
of the "Dictionnaire general de la langue frangaise" 
(i 890-1 900), which marks a further progress in the 
treatment of etymology, semantics, and pronunciation. 

For many years the most commanding figure in the 
Romance field, after the death of Diez, was his pupil, 
Gaston Paris (i 839-1 903), who first came into promi- 
nence in 1861 with his "Etude sur le role de Faccent latin 
dans la langue frangaise." Beside him stood A. Dar- 
mesteter (1846-88), investigator of the formation and 
the life of words, and Paul Meyer, who with Paris 



ROMANCE PHILOLOGY 223 

launched "Romania," the most famous vehicle of 
Romance studies. Their disciples, all over the world, 
were the teachers of the next generation. Among their 
contemporaries may be mentioned C. Chabaneau, an 
authority on French and Provencal grammar; C.Thurot, 
who traced the development of French pronunciation; 
and M. Breal, who, though not primarily a Neo-Latinist, 
did much to advance the study of the meanings of 
Romance words. The fruits of previous researches, and 
of his own, are embodied by F. Brunot in his vast and 
still unfinished "Histoire de la langue frangaise des origines 
a 1900'' (5 vols., 1906-13). Linguistic science adopted 
novel methods under the guidance of the Abbe Rous- 
SELOT, the founder of experimental phonetics, whose 
great pubKcations began in 1891; and of J. Gillieron 
and E. Edmont, compilers of that enormous storehouse 
of dialect material, the "Atlas linguistique de la France '^ 
(1902-13). Much had been already garnered in the 
"Revue des patois gallo-romans " (1887-92) and the 
"Bulletin de la Societe des parlers de France" (1893- 
99); the former was continued by L. Cledat's "Revue 
de philologie frangaise." More general are "La Parole" 
(1889-) and the "Revue de dialectologie romane" 
(1909-). Brunot has in the Sorbonne building an im- 
portant and growing collection of speech records known 
as the "Archives de la parole." The facts revealed by 
all these recent investigations have led to a new inter- 
pretation of dialect phenomena, exempHfied, for instance, 
in "Les Aires morphologiques dans les parlers populaires 
du nord-ouest de I'Angoumois" (1914), by A. L. Ter- 

RACHER. 

For the comprehensive study of mediaeval literature, 
the way was prepared, in the Renaissance and Neo- 
classical periods, by the collection, description, and trans- 
lation of manuscripts; and some important attempts 



224 PHILOLOGY 

at collective presentation were made in the i6th cen- 
tury by Jehan de Nostredame and Claude Fauchet, in 
the 1 8th by Montfaucon and La Curne de Sainte- 
Palaye. During the first half, and more, of the 19th 
century, literary scholars devoted themselves, for the 
most part, to the publication of the huge mass of docu- 
ments preserved. Some, to be sure, by their general 
portrayal of the poetry of a bygone age, succeeded also 
in lending a romantic interest to mediaeval letters: 
Raynouard gave the pubHc not only the "Choix des 
poesies originales des troubadours" (1816-21), but also 
"Des Troubadours et des cours d'amour" (181 7); 
Fauriel wrote an admirable "Histoire de la poesie 
provengale" (1846); Paulin Paris is remembered both 
for "Les Manuscrits frangais de la Bibliotheque du Roi" 
(1836-48), and for " Les Romans de la Table Ronde mis en 
nouveau language" (1868-77); Leon Gautier attempted 
a great treatise on "Lesfipopees frangaises" (1865-68). 
The task of synthesis and systematic investigation was, 
however, reserved in the main for the latter part of the 
century. Here once more we find the insight, the charm, 
the enthusiasm of Gaston Paris and the keenness and 
indefatigable zeal of Paul Meyer. Among the works 
of the former, the best known are the "Histoire poetique 
de Charlemagne" (1865); "La Litterature Frangaise au 
moyen age" (1888), "Frangois Villon" (1901); to the 
latter are due the "Recherches sur Fepopee frangaise" 
(1867), "Les derniers troubadours de la Provence" (1871), 
"Alexandre le Grand dans la litterature frangaise du 
moyen age" (1886). Two of the many distinguished 
pupils of Gaston Paris, A. Jeanroy and J. Bedier, have 
given an entirely new turn to our conception of the 
course respectively of lyric and of epic poetry. Mediaeval 
life and learning have been interestingly investigated 
by C. V. Langlois; the stage, by E. Lintilhac. The 



ROMANCE PHILOLOGY 225 

printing of texts has been continued by the "Societe 
des anciens textes frangais," founded in 1876. Provencal 
is represented by the "BibHotheque meridionale'' and the 
^^Annales du Midi" (1889-). 

As to the historical and critical study of modern 
French literature, its glorious career, from Villemain to 
Lanson, is too famiHar to require specification. It is 
enough to recall such names as Sainte-Beuve, Taine, 
Renan, Scherer, Brunetiere, Lemaitre, Faguet. 
Aside from the more popular magazines, some of the prin- 
cipal journals today are the "Revue d'histoire litteraire de 
la France" (1894-), the "Revue du seizieme siecle" 
(191 3-, succeeding the "Revue des etudes rabelaisiennes, " 
1903-12), the "Revue du dix-huitieme siecle" (191 3-). 
The study of letters from the comparative standpoint — 
first emphasized by Madame de Stael — has been suc- 
cessfully pursued of late by J. Texte, E. Bouvy, F. 
Baldensperger, E. Picot, E. Esteve, P. Hazard, E. 
Haumant, J. ViANEY, E. Martinenche. 

ItaHan and Spanish studies, too, have flourished for a 
hundred years. The nine volumes of P. L. Ginguene's 
"Histoire litteraire dTtaHe (1811-19), A. F. Ozanam's 
masterly treatises on "Dante et la philosophic cathoHque 
au Xlir siecle" (1839) and "Les Poetes franciscains en 
ItaHe" (1852), and the two posthumous volumes of 
Claude Fauriel, on "Dante et les origines de la langue 
et de la Htterature itaHennes" (1854), were followed by a 
procession of authoritative works on the history, art, 
music, and letters of Italy. Especially noteworthy, for 
the Uterary side, are the researches of E. Gebhart on 
the Renaissance, the mystics, and the story-writers; 
those of C. Dejob on the influence of rehgious ideas; 
and those of E. Picot on the relations between France 
and Italy in the i6th century; the books on Petrarch by 
A. Mezieres, p. de Nolhac, H. Cochin, and J. Vianey; 



226 PHILOLOGY 

A. Thomases *^ Francesco da Barberino et la litterature 
provengale en Italie au moyen age" (1883); P. Saba- 
tier's * 'Saint Francois d'Assise'' (1894); H. Hauvette's 
*'Luigi Alamanni'' (1903), ^^Dante" (1911), and 
*'Boccace" (1914); A. Jeanroy's "Carducci'' (1911); 
and P. Hazard's "Leopardi'' (1913). An excellent 
summary is Hauvette's "Litterature italienne" (1906). 
The publication of investigations is facilitated by the 
"Bulletin italien/' started in 1901. 

Spain, after having been revealed to France, in the first 
half of the century, by such men of letters as Prosper 
Merimee, Emile Deschamps, and Theophile Gautier, 
by translators like Damas-Hinard, and by scholars of 
the standing of L. Viardot, F. Denis, and P. Chasles, 
was assiduously cultivated under the Second Empire by 
A. de Latour, T. de Puymaigre, E. Lafond ("Lope de 
Vega"), E. Chasles ("Cervantes"), P. Rousselot ("Les 
Mystiques"). In our time the most distinguished 
names are those of A. Morel-Fatio, editor, with E. 
Merimee and P. Paris, of the "Bulletin hispanique," 
and R. Foulche-Delbosc, editor of the "Revue 
hispanique" and director of the "Biblioteca hispanica." 
With them may be chosen for mention J. Cornu, L. de 
Viel-Castel, E. Merimee, and L. P. Thomas, students 
respectively of the Cid, the theater, Quevedo, and preci- 
osity. E. Martinenche has treated of the influence of 
the Spanish drama on the French. Compared with 
France, the Teutonic countries have at present few 
students of Hispanic speech and letters, and none of 
great authority. In conclusion, it may be recalled that 
two of the most important Spanish texts, the "Cronica 
rimada del Cid" and the "Cancionero general" of 1554, 
were printed in France (in 1846 and 1878), and that 
Paris was the seat of pubHcation of the sixty volumes 
of the "Coleccion de los mejores autores espanoles" 




ROMANCE PHILOLOGY 



ROMANCE PHILOLOGY 227 

(1845-72). The Bibliotheque Nationale and the Parisian 
bookshops are particularly rich in Spanish manuscripts 
and printed books. 

Instruction at Paris. To the Romance student of 
today, Paris presents not only the resources of the 
Sorbonne, which contains the Faculte des Lettres, the 
ficole des Hautes fitudes, and the ficole des Chartes, 
but likewise those of the College de France, across the 
street. Some Americans may be attracted also by the 
Normal Schools, or by the National Conservatory, which 
are open to foreigners under specified conditions. Many 
will certainly take advantage of the special French 
instruction offered to foreigners by the Comite de Patro- 
nage des etudiants etrangers de la Faculte des Lettres 
(November to May), by the Alliance Frangaise, 186 
Boulevard St. Germain (one group of courses in July, 
one in August), and by the Guilde Internationale, 6 rue 
de la Sorbonne (one set of courses during the school year, 
another from July to September). In addition to the 
collections of books and records in the Sorbonne building, 
the student has at his disposal the Bibliotheque Natio- 
nale,«the Bibliotheque deF Arsenal, the Bibliotheque Sainte- 
Genevieve, the Bibliotheque Mazarine, not to mention the 
Bibliotheque Historique de la Ville de Paris and various 
other special libraries. At 1 1 rue Mazarin is an informa- 
tion bureau for students of Romance Philology; at 96 
boulevard Raspail, a Centre d'fitudes Franco-Hispa- 
niques. 

In the Faculte des Lettres the history of the French lan- 
guage is expounded especially by F. Brunot (author of 
"La Doctrine de Malherbe," 1891; "Histoire de la 
langue frangaise des origines a 1900,'' 1906); French 
literature and bibliography, by G. Lanson (editor of 
Racine, Sainte-Beuve, Voltaire; author of works on 



228 PHILOLOGY 

Nivelle de la Chaussee, Bossuet, Boileau, Corneille; 
"Conseils sur Fart d'ecrire," 1890; "Hommes et livres," 
1895; "Histoire de la litterature frang;aise," 1895; 
"Manuel bibliographique de la litterature frangaise/' 
1909; "La Methode de Thistoire litt6raire," 1911); 
French and Provengal linguistics and mediaeval literature, 
by A. Thomas ("Francesco de Barberino et la litterature 
provengale en Italie au moyen age," 1883; "Essais de 
philologie frangaise," 1902; '^Melanges d'etymologie 
frangaise," 1902; "Nouveaux essais de philologie fran- 
gaise,'' 1904; editor of Bertran de Born; former 
editor of "Romania,'' collaborator on the "Dictionnaire 
general de la langue frangaise"); southern European 
literature, particularly Provengal, by A. Jeanroy ("Les 
Origines de la poesie lyrique en France au moyen age," 
1889; "Carducci," 1911; "Les Joies du Gai Savoir," 
1914; editor of Provengal texts); Italian, by H. Hau- 
VETTE ("Luigi Alamanni" 1903; "Litterature italien- 
ne," 1906; "Dante," 191 1; "Boccace," 1914); 
Spanish, by E. Martinenche ("La Comedie espagnole 
en France de Hardy a Racine," 1900; "Moliere et le 
theatre espagnol," 1906); Rumanian, by M. Roques 
("Le Gargon et Faveugle, jeu du Xlir siecle," J911; 
author with J. Gillieron of "fitudesde Geographic linguis- 
tique," 191 2; editor and bibliographer of the works of 
Gaston Paris; editor of "Romania)." French literature 
may be studied also with F. Strowski ("Pascal et son 
temps," 1907-09; "Les Essais de Montaigne," 1906- 
09) ; H. Chamard (editor and biographer of Du Bellay) ; 
G. Reynier (three volumes on the novel) ; G. Michaut 
(investigator of Sainte-Beuve, Senancour, and La Fon- 
taine); E. HuGUET ("La Syntaxe de Rabelais," 1894). 
Mediaeval French history is taught by F. Lot ("Les Der- 
niers Carolingiens, " 1891; Breton history, Hugh Capet, 
Charles the Bald). 



ROMANCE PHILOLOGY 229 

At the College de France, Spanish Hterature is repre- 
sented by A. Morel-Fatio ("L'Espagne au XVF et au 
XVir siecle," 1878; "Calderon," 1882; "Etudes sur 
TEspagne/' 1888-1904; "Catalogue des manuscrits 
espagnols et des manuscrits portugais," 1892; "Le 
Theatre espagnol," with L. Rouanet, 1900; "Ambrosio 
de Salazar/' 1901; "El Libro de Alixandre," 1906; 
"Historiographie de Charles-Quint/' 1913; editor of 
"Bulletin hispanique''); Renaissance and modern French 
literature, by A. Lefranc ("Les Navigations de Panta- 
gruel/^ 1905; "Calvin, ITnstitution chretienne," 1911; 
"Rabelais, CEuvres completes, '^ 191 2-13; "A. Chenier, 
(Euvres inedites,'' 1914); mediaeval French literature, by 
J. Bedier ("Les Fabliaux," 1893; "Le Roman de 
Tristan et Iseult traduit et restaure," 1900; "fitudes 
critiques," 1903; "Les Legendes epiques," 1908-13). 
The Neo-Latinist can here follow also with profit the 
Latin instruction of L. Havet ("La Prose metrique de 
Symmaque et les origines du Cursus," 1892; "Phaedri 
Fabulae," 1895; "Manuel de critique verbale," 191 1), 
and the Celtic courses of J. Lot (best known to Romance 
scholars for his translation of the " Mabinogion, " 1899 
and 1913, and for his "Contributions a I'etude des 
romans de la Table ronde," 191 2). 

Advanced studies may be pursued at the Ecole des 
Hautes Etudes under the direction of some of the men 
above mentioned (Thomas, Morel-Fatio, Jeanroy, 
Roques, Havet, Lot), of J. Gillieron ("Le Patois de la 
commune de Vionnaz," 1880; "Atlas linguistique de la 
France," with E. Edmont, 1902-13; "Etudes de geo- 
graphie Hnguistique, " with M. Roques, 191 2), for dialect- 
ology; of H. Gaidoz in Celtic ("Etudes de mythologie 
gauloise," 1886; works on folk-lore and mythology); and 
of J. Marouzeau, in Latin ("La Phrase a verbe *etre' 
en latin," 1910). At the ficole des Chartes there are 



230 PHILOLOGY 

general courses in French and Provencal philology and in 
palaeography. The Institut Catholique, 74 rue de Vau- 
girard, offers, in addition to courses in literature, history, 
and palaeography, an exceptional opportunity for the 
study of experimental phonetics and linguistic science 
under the Abbe Rousselot (author of "Les Modifica- 
tions phonetiques du langage etudiees dans le patois 
d'une famille de Cellefrouin,'' 1891, and of the "Prin- 
cipes de phonetique experimentale, " 1 897-1 908). 

Instruction at Other Universities. Copious as are the 
resources of Paris, some Americans may well prefer the 
quiet, inexpensive life of the provincial universities, among 
which the following are to be recommended for Romance 
studies: Bordeaux, Montpellier, Lyon, Toulouse, Gre- 
noble, Rennes, Caen. All of these have introduced, beside 
their regular courses, special instruction for foreigners; 
and all have organized committees or offices to minister 
to the particular needs of visitors from other countries. 
Grenoble has devoted much care to the housing of stran- 
gers, with a view to hygiene, economy, and practice in 
speaking French. At Bordeaux there is a Maison des 
etudiants. Toulouse has a Stadium for athletic sports. 
Several of the provincial universities have developed 
summer schools for foreign pupils: the most flourishing 
is that of Grenoble, noted for its excellent administra- 
tion, its unusual facilities for the study of phonetics, 
and its situation in the midst of mountain scenery; that 
of Rennes, which is held at St. Malo, combines good 
teaching with the attractions of seashore. For the 
regular winter work, the opportunities presented by the 
several institutions are Hsted below: 

Bordeaux. — Romance philology and the speech and 
letters of southwestern France, under E. Bourciez 
("Les Moeurs poHes et la Htterature de cour sous Henri 




ROMANCE PHILOLOGY 



ROMANCE PHILOLOGY 231 

II,'' 1886; "Precis de phonetique frangaise/' 1900; 
"Elements de linguistique romane/' 1910); Modern 
French literature, with A. Le Breton (studies on the 
novel in the last three centuries, 1890-1901; "Balzac, 
rhomme et Toeuvre," 1905; "La Comedie Humaine de 
Saint-Simon," 1914); Itahan literature, with E. BouvY 
("Voltaire et Tltalie," 1898); Spanish, with G. Cirot 
(contributor to the "Bulletin hispanique ") , and H. Collet 
("Lemysticisme musical espagnol au XV^siecle," 1913). 

Caen. — French Hterature, under M. Souriau ("Ber- 
nardin de Saint Pierre," 1915), and P. Villey ("Les 
Sources et revolution des Essais de Montaigne," 1908). 

Grenoble. — Phonetics and philology, with T. Rosset, 
director of the Institut de Phonetique ("Les Origines de 
la prononciation moderne etudiees au XVir siecle," 
1 911; "Recherches experimentales pour Pinscription de 
la voix parlee," 191 1); French literature, with P. 
MoRiLLOT ("Scarron et le genre burlesque," 1888). 
Italian language and literature. 

Lyon. — French philology, under L. Cledat (editor of 
the ^^Revue de philologie frangaise"; "Du Role historique 
de Bertrand de Born," 1879; "Grammaire raisonnee 
de la langue frangaise," 1894; a Dictionnaire etymolo- 
gique de la langue francaise," 1912). Courses in modern 
French Hterature and in Italian. 

Montpellier. — Comparative philology, under M. 
Grammont ("La Dissimilation consonantique," 1895; 
"Le Vers frangais," 1913). French literature, with J. 
Vl\ney, (" Mathurin Regnier, " 1896; "Le Petrarquisme 
en France au XVIe siecle," 1909), and J. Merlant 
("Le Roman personnel de Rousseau a Fromentin," 
1905; "De Montaigne a Vauvenarques, " 1914). In- 
struction in Romance philology, Spanish, and Italian. 

Rennes. — French literature, with G. Allais ("Mon- 
taigne et ses lectures," 1885; "Malherbe et la poesie 



232 PHILOLOGY 

frangaise a la fin du XVIe siecle," 1892; "Les Debuts 
dramatiques de Victor Hugo", 1903). French litera- 
ture and Breton folklore, under A. Le Braz ("La Chan- 
son de la Bretagne,'' 1892 and 1901; "La Legende de la 
mort chez les Bretons armoricains,'^ 1893 and 1902; 
"Au Pays des pardons,'' 1904; "Au Pays d'exil de 
Chateaubriand,'' 1909). Celtic and Romance philology. 
Toulouse. — Provencal, under J. Anglade ("Le Trou- 
badour Guiraut Riquier," 1905; "Les Troubadours," 
1908). Spanish, with E. Merimee ("Quevedo," 1886). 
Modern French literature. 



Oriental Philology^ 

The beginnings of modern comparative grammar date 
from the studies of the EngHshman, Sir WilHam Jones, 
and the Germans, Bopp and Grimm. The translation 
into French by Michel Breal of Bopp's great systematic 
work on Indo-European grammar gave a distinct start 
and direction to linguistic studies in France. Previous 
investigators had dwelt mostly on the development of 
the forms of words and too little on that of their logical 
content. To the latter aspect of the growth of language 
BreaFs "Essai de semantique" (1897) addresses itself, 
and — if it has not already done so — it seems destined 
yet to mark an epoch in the history of Hnguistics. Fer- 
dinand DE Saussure (1857-1913) taught for a decade 
at the Ecole des Hautes Etudes, and his work, with that 
of Breal, has had great influence upon French science. 
To continue the labors of Breal and de Saussure, Meillet 
was called to the College de France. His "Introduction 
a I'etude comparative des langues indo-europeennes'* 
shows how a rigorously scientific exposition is not incom- 
patible with the grace of form and charming luminosity 
that are so characteristic of the French temperament. 
The work had already come to a third edition in 191 2, 
and we may hope that a long career of continued use- 
fulness still hes before it. Under his vigorous leadership 
have arisen pupils of promise and achievement: to 
mention only a few, — Dottin in Celtic, Vendryes in 

1 [Drafting Committee: Franklin Edgerton, University of 
Pennsylvania; E. W. Hopkins, Yale University; C. R. Lanman, 

Harvard University. — Ed.] 

233 



234 PHILOLOGY 

Latin and Celtic, Gauthiot in the Baltic languages, 
CuNY in Greek, Ernout and Marouzeau in Latin, 
Jules Block in the languages of India. 

Indology. The mystical and theological speculations 
of Ancient India, as contained in the Upanishads, were 
first introduced to the Occident by Anquetil-Duper- 
RON, who went to the Orient as an employee of the East 
India Company. Without ever learning the sacred lan- 
guage of India, the Sanskrit, he studied the Upanishads 
in a Persian translation, and from that he made a Latin 
version which he pubHshed in 1801-02. Chezy, as pro- 
fessor of Sanskrit at the College de France, delivered 
his inaugural address on the use and value of that study 
in 181 5. Fifteen years later he published the text of 
the masterpiece of the Hindu drama, Kalidasa's gakun- 
tala, in an edition which after almost a century is still 
used and respected. It contains not only the drama, 
but also the text of the epic form of the Qakuntala- 
story as it appears in the Maha Bharata, thus presenting 
the data for an interesting study in literary genetics. 

Eugene Burnouf (i 801-185 2) was the successor of 
Chezy at the College de France; in him were united a 
prodigious power of work, endless patience, scrupulous 
accuracy, and wonderful divinatory gift, — a combina- 
tion amounting to nothing short of genius. Besides 
being a most eminent Sanskritist, Burnouf was a pioneer 
in the sacred language of Buddhism, the Pali, and in 
Tibetan and Siamese and Burmese, and even in the 
language of the Avesta, the ancient texts of which he 
interpreted. His text and translation of the history of 
Krishna (the Bhagavata Purana) make three folios, 
magnificent, and yet so ponderous as hardly to be usable 
for every-day study. His "Introduction a Thistoire du 
Buddhisme indien" is the first great Occidental work 



ORIENTAL PHILOLOGY 235 

on the religion of Buddha, and it was followed in 1852 
by his "Lotus de la bonne loi," the first Occidental trans- 
lation of an important Buddhist text, issued with a 
score of relevant learned memoirs. Burnouf made Paris 
the chief center for Indian studies and Indianists in the 
forties; and the power of his personaHty and teaching 
is shown by the fact that he drew to himself such 
famous pupils as Adolphe Regnier and Barthelemy- 
Saint-Hilaire, GoLDSTiJCKER, Rudolf Roth, and Max 

MULLER. 

It is the times of bitterest trial for France that have 
witnessed some of the most notable events in the history 
of French OrientaHsm. Chezy's inaugural was dehvered 
only a few months before the battle of Waterloo. The 
ficole des Hautes Etudes was opened in 1868. And it 
was only a little after the disasters of the Franco-German 
war of 1870-71 that a splendid trio of Indianists — Se- 
NART and Bergaigne and Barth — arose to give luster 
to French scholarship. Senart, a native of Rheims, by 
his "Grammar of Kaccayana" (1871), laid a solid foun- 
dation for the further study of Pali, begun by Burnouf. 
The grammar was soon followed by his Essay on the 
Legend of Buddha. Many of the most important texts 
relating to this subject are contained in the Maha Vastu; 
Senart published an edition of this in three volumes 
(1882-1897) which may truly be called monumental. 
So also are his two volumes entitled "Les inscriptions 
de Piyadasi" or Agoka (about 250 B.C.), the "Constan- 
tine of Buddhism," containing very old and impor- 
tant data for the study of the palaeography and the 
linguistics of India and of its religious and political 
history. 

Abel Bergaigne (1838-1888), pupil of a devoted 
teacher, Hauvette-Besnault, inaugurated the instruc- 
tion in Indology at the Sorbonne, and founded a school 



236 PHILOLOGY 

of Indianists who have kept up and advanced the noblest 
traditions of French science. His Vedic investigations 
— as laid down in his "La Religion Vedique d'apres les 
hymnes du Rig-Veda'' (3 volumes, 1878-83, to which 
was added a fourth volume of indices by the American 
Indologist Maurice Bloomfield in 1897), "fitudes sur 
le lexique du Rig-Veda" (1884), "Quarante hymnes du 
Rig- Veda traduits et commentes" (1895), ^.nd in his 
numerous essays — touch not only the form and vocab- 
ulary of these venerable documents, but also their essen- 
tial substance, and indicate what further products of 
his learning we might have expected, had notBergaigne's 
life been cut short untimely by a mountaineering accident 
in the French Alps. 

A third great name which, with those of Senart and 
Bergaigne, came to high distinction in the seventies, is 
that of the Alsatian, Auguste Barth (1834-19 16), who 
for many years sent to the "Revue critique d'Histoire 
et de Litterature" contributions of such solid worth as to 
make him an authority of the highest standing in the 
world of scholars. Oral teaching from a professor's 
chair was not feasible for him, on account of deafness, 
but he was in fact, to a host of younger men, a teacher, 
lovable, loved, respected, and followed. His "Religions 
de rinde" (1879; English ed., London, 1882; Russian 
ed., Moscow, 1896) traces the development of this 
mighty factor of Hindu life from the earliest Vedic 
times to those of modern reformers. The recognized 
importance of his results is due to the fact that they are 
drawn directly from the original sources, not taken at 
second hand. For Indianists, Barth was the court of 
highest appeal. His "Bulletins," published from 1880 
to 1902 in the "Revue del'Histoiredes Religions," consti- 
tute at once a history of the progress of Indian studies 
and a wonderfully clear and convenient resume of their 




ORIENTAL PHIXOLOGY 



ORIENTAL PHILOLOGY 237 

principal results. The modest form in which they ap- 
peared, as review-articles, is wholly out of keeping 
with their importance, and they have now been re- 
published, in two dignified volumes, as a part of his 
collected works. This is most fitting, for his judg- 
ments are so sound and well-reasoned as to be of enduring 
value. 

It is not easy to lose sight of his "Inscriptions san- 
scrites du Cambodge'' (1885), a monument to his skill 
and industry as an epigraphist, for it is an independent 
work; but his minor articles form an even greater testi- 
monial to his vast and accurate learning and sound 
judgment, although they fail to give an adequate impres- 
sion of their author's rare gifts, because it is hard to 
judge them as a whole, scattered as they are through 
some hundred and fifty volumes of a dozen different 
periodical pubHcations. To the devotion of his col- 
leagues, Senart, Foucher, and Finot, we owe the hope that 
these too will soon be pubHshed as part of his collected 
works. 

Not only Bergaigne, but also his pupil Victor Henry, 
another Alsatian, devoted much time and strength to 
the important task of making text-books. Bergaigne's 
"Manuel pour etudier la langue sanscrite'' (texts, lexicon, 
grammar) has a host of admirably practical features; 
and so has Henry's "Elements de Sanscrit classique." 
The two in collaboration wrote also a hand-book for 
Vedic study. Henry's manual for Pali, and that of the 
Danish scholar Dines Andersen, are the best at present 
available for the sacred language of Buddhism. Henry's 
interests and activities were very many-sided: he has 
left us two manuals of comparative grammar, excellent 
for brevity and avoidance of too great technicahty; an 
austere treatise (in collaboration with the Dutch scholar 
Caland) on the ritual (Agnishtoma) ; good literary 



238 PHILOLOGY 

translations of Sanskrit works; and popular books on 
magic and on the literatures of India, etc. 

The career of Sylvain Levi, both as investigator and 
as teacher, sheds luster upon his departed master, Ber- 
gaigne. His youthful work on the Hindu theater ("Le 
Theatre indien," 1890) no one has even yet attempted 
to supplant. An elaborate treatise upon the doctrine 
of the sacrifice in the Brahmanas was doubtless sug- 
gested by his studies in that direction under Bergaigne; 
while for his work on Nepal ("Le Nepal, etude historique 
d'un royaume hindou,'^ 3 vols., 1905-8), the labors of 
the eager traveler are joined to those of the student of 
the written word. His text and translation of Asanga's 
Exposition of the Doctrines of the Greater Vehicle are a 
weighty contribution to Occidental knowledge of the 
Maha-Yana Buddhism. The Indian Miscellanies 
("Melanges d'indianisme,'' 191 1) form a volume written 
by his pupils to celebrate his completion of twenty-five 
years of service as a teacher. Among the twenty-three 
contributors (to mention only a few) stand the names of 
FiNOT, FoucHER, Lacote, Meillet, Pelliot, Ven- 
DRYES, — men already distinguished for their achieve- 
ments in archaeology and exploration, in the history of 
Buddhism and of literature, and in linguistics. The 
numerous and beautiful works of Foucher upon Buddhist 
archaeology, especially his volumes on the Greco-Buddhist 
art of Gandhara and on Buddhist iconography, are a 
revelation of the charm of Oriental study in its most 
fascinating aspects. 

Sinology. — China and Chinese were made the object 
of scientific study by Frenchmen — Jesuit missionaries 
— almost two hundred years ago. Then, in 181 5, 
Abel Remusat was made professor of Chinese at the 
College de France; and his successor, Stanislas Julien, 




ORIENTAL PHILOLOGY 



ORIENTAL PHILOLOGY 239 

who taught from 1832 to 1873, was the best Sinologist 
of his day. His translation of the life and travels of 
the illustrious Buddhist pilgrim, Hiouen Thsang, serves 
the Indianists much as Pausanias serves the Hellenists. 
Stagnating somewhat upon the death of Julien, French 
Sinology sprang to new Hfe again in the hands of the 
Jesuit missionaries Pere Seraphin-Couvreur and Pere 
WiEGER, and of Chavannes, Cordier, and Pelliot. 
Father Couvreur's "Dictionnaire Chinois-f rangais " 
(3rd ed., 191 1) has been of inestimable value in pro- 
moting Chinese studies in France; and Father Wieger's 
"Textes historiques'' serve admirably for a general 
knowledge of the history of the Middle Kingdom. Henri 
Cordier 's "Bibliotheca Sinica" (2d ed., 1908) is the 
most minute and learned Occidental repertory of Chinese 
bibliography, fidouard Chavannes has published the 
first five volumes of his complete version of the " Memoires 
historiques de Se-ma Ts'ien." Besides this vast historical 
work may be mentioned his archaeological investigations 
contained in his "Sculpture sur pierre en Chine'' and 
in his "Mission archeologique dans la Chine septentri- 
onale'' (with nearly 500 plates). His three beautiful 
and charming volumes, "Cinq cents contes et apologues, 
extraits du Tripitaka chinois et traduits en frangais," 
have already been most fruitful in the hands of students 
of comparative literature. 

The exploration of Central Asia by Sir Aurel Stein, 
Pelliot, and others, has opened up a new world to stu- 
dents of India and China. Pelliot's finds in his journey 
of 1905-8 were astounding beyond measure. He visited 
the "Grottos of the Thousand Buddhas,'' examined the 
manuscripts (some fifteen to twenty thousand) which 
had been walled up in the eleventh century (mostly 
Chinese and Tibetan, but some in Indian writing), and 
brought to France material for the researches of scholars 



240 PHILOLOGY 

for decades to come. In 191 1 he was made professor of 
the languages and history and archaeology of Central 
Asia at the College de France. 

Instruction. — Lectures for oriental students are 
numerous and are given in the College de France and at 
the Sorbonne. At the latter is located the ficole pratique 
des Hautes Etudes, which has a section devoted particu- 
larly to the science of religion. In addition to these 
three, there is a practical National School for Living 
Oriental languages (ficole speciale des Langues orientales 
vivantes), where courses are given for three successive 
years in the modern languages of Arabia, Persia, China, 
Japan, Siam, Annam, India (Hindustani and Tamil), 
Armenia, Turkey, Russia, and Greece, with comple- 
mentary courses (by Cordier) on the history and legis- 
lation of Moslem races (in Morocco, Algeria, etc.). This 
school has a special library of 75000 volumes and numer- 
ous manuscripts and maps. 

As an example of the wealth of instruction given in 
one year on Oriental subjects, the courses offered in 
1914-1915 may be briefly enumerated. They are chiefly 
one-hour courses. In the College de France, Maspero 
gave a course on Egyptian grammar and one on the 
religious and political crisis under Amenothes; Fossey, 
a course on Babylonian law; Clermont-Ganneau, a 
course on Semitic epigraphy and antiquities; Lods, one 
course on Hebrew grammar and one on the history of 
Hebrew religion; Casanova, a course on the Koran 
and another on different forms of Islam; Sylvain Levi, 
one course on Indian literature and one on the Sikhs and 
Gurkhas; and Chavannes, one course on Chinese 
literature and one on Buddhism in China. There were 
also general courses on the archaeology of Central Asia, 
by Pelliot; on the languages and nations of the 



ORIENTAL PHILOLOGY 241 

Indo-Europeans, by Meillet; and on the history of sacri- 
fice by LoiSY. A "public'' course on the art of India, by 
FoucHER, and one on comparative grammar, by Ven- 
DRYES, were supplemented by conferences intended to 
extend over several years; thus, for example, Foucher 
gave in the first year lectures on Sanskrit grammar, 
which were to be followed the next year by exercises in 
translation of Sanskrit text and during the following third 
and fourth years by the study of Vedic and Pali texts; 
and Vendryes gave special courses on Irish, Gothic, 
and Old High German. 

At the Ecole Pratique des Hautes fitudes, following 
about the same order, we find Halevy offering three 
one-hour courses on Ethiopic (grammar and texts) and 
Turanian; Scheil, on Assyrian texts; Barthelemy, two 
courses, on Arabic texts and dialects; and Lambert 
three, on Hebrew and Syriac texts. Levi here offered 
one course on Sanskrit texts (reading one of Kalidasa's 
plays) and another on recent publications, his course 
being supplemented by Bloch with a course on Bengali 
texts, and by Bacot with one on Tibetan texts. In 
Avestan, one course was offered by Gauthiot. For the 
near East, courses on Byzantine philology and history 
were given by Diehl and Psichari. Courses were also 
offered by Clermont-Ganneau, on Oriental antiquities 
(besides a special course on Hebrew archaeology), and by 
Isidore Levi, on Alexandrine literature and the History 
of Israel. 

In the Section des Sciences religieuses, two courses 
were offered by Granet (Chinese festivals and mourning 
texts) ; one on Babylonian and biblical myths, by Fossey; 
two on the cult of Israel and Ecclesiastes, by Vernes; 
one on Talmudic and Rabbinical Judaism, by Israel 
Levi; and two on the Koran and on Persian mysticism, 
by Clement Huart; while India was represented by two 



242 PHILOLOGY 

courses (Upanishad and Buddhist texts) by Foucher, and 
Egypt by two, Egyptian Religion and Book of the Dead, 
by Amelineau. 

Periodicals. — The periodicals pubHshed by French 
scholars on Oriental subjects, and appearing in Paris under 
the auspices of the University or the closely connected 
learned bodies whose members are University professors, 
are also worthy of notice. The "Journal Asiatique," 
published by the Societe Asiatique, is the oldest and best; 
its contributors are mainly from the University. The 
"Memoires de la Societe de linguistique'' and the "Bul- 
letin de I'Ecole frangaise d'Extreme-Orient'' are also 
valuable periodicals in their respective scientific and 
practical lines; while the "Journal des Savants," though 
more general in scope, is not less scientific. Under the 
care of the Musee Guimet appears the "Revue de 
rhistoire des religions," an invaluable aid to all workers 
in the field of comparative religion; while the "T'oung 
Pao," now in its eighteenth year, and the "Revue Semi- 
tique," published by Halevy, are indispensable for the 
Sinologue and Semitic scholar. 

Libraries. — Besides the general libraries of the College, 
the Sorbonne, and the Institute, the student of Orientalia 
has the Musee Guimet (7 Place dTena), which contains 
32000 volumes on the history and culture of the extreme 
Orient, and the Musee Indo-Chinois (Palais duTroca- 
dero), which contains a rich collection of Oriental anti- 
quities. There is a special Salle de travail (Galerie 
Saint- Jacques) reserved for foreign students wishing to 
obtain the Certificat d'fitudes frangaises. 



Semitic Philology' 

Interest in the Semitic languages has been a cherished 
tradition in France. As Abel Lefranc tells us in his 
valuable "Histoire du College de France depuis ses 
origines jusqu'a la fin du premier empire/' this institu- 
tion started with two professors of Hebrew, and another 
was added the next year. From that day to this, nearly 
four hundred years, instruction in Hebrew has been 
given continuously in this college. The diplomatic, 
religious, and commercial relations of France with North 
Africa and the Near East had been such that practical 
considerations early called attention to the importance 
of Arabic. It is true that not till 1587 do we find men- 
tion of an Arabic chair at the College de France (the 
incumbent of which was Arnoul de LTsle); but nearly 
fifty years earlier, in 1538, the celebrated Guillaume 
PosTEL was appointed for "Fenseignement des lettres 
grecques, hebraiques et arabiques." It was a professor 
at the College de France, Antoine Galland, who early 
in the eighteenth century published his translation of 
the Arabian Nights. This work was not only one of 
great literary importance, but it has aroused and kept 
alive an interest in things Oriental to an extent difiicult 
or impossible to estimate. 

But it was not till the nineteenth century that great 
advances in Semitic philology were made. Napoleon's 
expedition stimulated interest in the Near East, while 
Champollion's discovery of the key to the Egyptian 

^ [Drafting Committee: J. R. Jewett, Harvard University; 
C. C. ToRREY, Yale University. — Ed.] 

243 



244 PHILOLOGY 

language not only was a great achievement in itself, 
but helped all Oriental learning. The decipherment of 
the cuneiform writing opened up new vistas in the 
world's history, and in this work French scholars took 
a splendid part. The names of Lenormant, Menant, 
Jules QppERT, BoTTA, DE Saulcy, and others, are famiHar 
wherever these languages are studied. The Crimean 
War and the French expedition to Syria in i860 not 
only helped general interest in things Oriental, but the 
latter gave an opportunity to Renan to make a journey 
not only to Phoenicia, but also to the Holy Land proper, 
results of which appear in some of those works which 
have made his name so famous. Meantime the genius 
of DE Sacy (i 758-1838) had aroused new interest in 
Arabic, and Caussin de Perceval (i 795-1871), Qua- 
TREMERE (1782-1857), and othcrs, had done fine work in 
this field. The conquest of Algiers (1830-1847) had 
brought Islam to the very doors of France. The occu- 
pation of Tunis brought still more Moslems under 
French control; and with the acquisition of Morocco 
France has become a great Mohammedan power and 
must perforce give much study and attention to the 
Arabic language and to Islam. 

In Archaeology, French scholars have done splendid 
work, — work in which they have had the intelligent and 
liberal support of the government. Some of the results of 
this work and this support are to be found, for example, in 
the magnificent collections of Oriental antiquities at the 
Louvre, in the Ins ti tut frangais d'archeologie orientale du 
Caire, and in such publications as the "Memoires publics 
par les membres de la Mission archeologique au Caire,'' 
those of the Institut f rangais just mentioned, and above all 
in the magnificent "Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum." 

Such well known names as those of Defremery, 
Slane, and Garcin de Tassy (Arabic and Mohammedan 




SEMITIC PHILOLOGY 



SEMITIC PHILOLOGY 245 

science) ; Martin, Duval, and Nau (Syriac studies espe- 
cially); De Vogue, Berger, and Chabot (Epigraphy); 
Joseph and Hartwig Derenbourg (Hebrew, Arabic, 
South Arabian and other studies) ; and Thureau-Dangin 
in the field of Old Babylonian science, may also receive 
mention here. 

Instruction. Courses of interest to students of Semitic 
philology are given in the following institutions: Uni- 
versite de Paris; College de France; ficole pratique des 
Hautes fitudes; ficole speciale des Langues Orientales 
vivantes; Ecole du Louvre; Ecole Coloniale; Institut 
Catholique de Paris; Cours de Langues vivantes. 

It must suffice here to mention the men giving instruc- 
tion in Semitic philology in the first three of these in- 
stitutions, with a statement of the lectures or courses 
they have offered, and of the institution in which the 
instruction was given. The names of the instructors 
are arranged alphabetically, and in certain cases attention 
is called to some of their pubHshed works. The state- 
ment of courses is based on the "Livret de Tetudiant," 
1 914-15. Following the name of the instructor are, 
in order, the name of the institution, the title of his chair, 
and the subject of his courses. 

Barthelemy (Adrien). ficole des Hautes fitudes. 

I. Classical Arabic. Interpretation of the Beyrouth 
Madjani I'adab. II. Arabic Dialectology. 

Casanova (Paul). College de France. Arabic lan- 
guage and literature. I. The schools and sects of Islam. 

II. Interpretation and critical study of the most ancient 
parts of the Coran. (Casanova is the author of 
^^ Mohammed et la fin du monde, etude critique sur 
ITslam primitif," the first part of which was published 
in 1 911; but much of his best work has appeared in 
the '^Memoires publics par les membres de la mission 



246 PHILOLOGY 

archeologique au Caire/' and in those published by the 
Institut frangais d^archeologie orientale du Caire.) 

Clermont-Ganneau (Charles). College de France. 
Semitic epigraphy and antiquities. Study of various 
Semitic monuments and texts recently discovered. — ^Also, 
at the Ecole des Hautes fitudes: Oriental archaeology. 

I. Oriental antiquities (Palestine, Phoenicia, Syria). 

II. Hebrew archaeology. (Clermont-Ganneau has done 
so much valuable work in the field of oriental archaeology 
and has pubHshed so much that a complete bibliography 
would be a very long one. Perhaps it will suffice to 
mention here his " Archaeological Researches in Palestine,'' 
1873-74; published for the Committee of the Palestine 
Exploration Fund, 2 vols., 1896 and 1899; also his great 
*^Recueil d'archeologie orientale,'' of which seven full 
volumes and part of an eighth had appeared by 1907). 

FossEY (Charles). College de France. Assyrian 
Philology and archaeology. Topics in Babylonian and 
Assyrian law. — Ecole des Hautes Etudes. Assyro- 
Babylonian religion. Certain Babylonian and Biblical 
myths. (Among Fossey's works may be mentioned: 
*^La magie assyrienne: etude suivie de textes magiques, 
transcrits, traduits et commentes," Paris, 1902; "Con- 
tribution au dictionnaire sumerien-assyrien, supplement 
a la Classified list deBrunnow," Paris, 1905-7; "Manuel 
d'assyriologie, fouilles, ecriture, langue, litterature, geo- 
graphie, histoire, religion, institutions, art," Tome I, 
Paris, 1904.) 

Grebaut. Universite de Paris. Ancient History of 
the Peoples of the Orient, The Egyptian conquests in 
Asia. 

GsELL (Stephane). College de France. History of 
North Africa, I. History of Carthage, constitution and 
administration of the Carthaginian Empire. II. Study 
of the ancient texts relative to the military operations in 



SEMITIC PHILOLOGY 247 

Africa during the first and second Punic Wars. (Among 
GsELL^s published works are: "Les monuments antiques 
de FAlgerie/' 2 vols., Paris, 1901; "L'Algerie dans 
Tantiquite," Alger, 1903; "Histoire ancienne de TAfrique 
du Nord," Paris, 191 3.) 

Halevy, J. ficole des Hautes fitudes. Ethiopic- 
himyarite languages and Turanian languages. I. Gram- 
mar of the Ethiopic language; Interpretation of texts. 
II. Interpretation of texts drawn from the "Corpus 
inscriptionum semiticarum." III. Turanian languages; 
Grammar; Interpretation of texts. (Among Halevy's 
published works are "Recherches Bibliques: Fhistoire des 
origines d'apres la Genese," Paris, 1895-1907: "Melanges 
d'epigraphie et d'archeologie semitiques," Paris, 1874. 
In 1893 Halevy founded the "Revue Semitique d'epi- 
graphie et d'histoire ancienne," to the pages of which he 
has contributed very extensively.) 

HuART (Clement), ficole des Hautes fitudes. Islam 
and religions of Arabia, I. Interpretation of the Coran 
(Chapter IV) with the aid of Tabari's commentary. 
II. Persian mysticism according to the Methnewi of 
Djelal-ed-din Roumi. (Among Huart's works are: "A 
History of Arabic Literature," New York, 1903; "Histoire 
des Arabes," vols. I, II, Paris, 191 2-13.) 

Lambert (Mayer). ficole des Hautes fitudes. 
Semitic languages. 1. Hebrew: Grammar, and the 
interpretation of the Book of Deuteronomy. II. Inter- 
pretation of the Book of Isaiah. III. Syriac: Outline of 
Syriac grammar; Interpretation of texts. 

Le Chatelier (Alfred). College de France. Moslem 
sociology and sociography. The ChadeHga in North 
Africa, their religious, political, and social role. (Among 
Le Chatelier 's published works are: "Les confreries 
musulmanes du Hedjaz," Paris 1887; "LTslam au xix^ 
siecle," Paris, 1888. Some of his most valuable work 



248 PHILOLOGY 

has been in connection with the "Revue du Monde 
Musulman;" the first number bears the date November, 
1906, and he has been director from the beginning.) 

Levi (Israel). Ecole des Hautes Etudes. Talmudic 
and Rabbinic Judaism. I. The Rabbinic commentaries 
on the Psalms. 11. The religious poems of Juda Halevi. 

Levy (Isidore), ficole des Hautes Etudes. Ancient 
History of the Orient, I. Researches in the Alexandrian 
literature. 11. History of Israel. 

LoDS (A.). University of Paris. History of the Hebrew 
religion. I. The beginnings of Hebrew literature. 11. 
The prophets of Israel and their time. HI. Interpreta- 
tion of texts. IV. Elements of Hebrew grammar. 

LoiSY (A.). College de France. History of Religions, 
I. The Epistle of St. Paul to the Galatians. II. General 
history of sacrifice. (Among Loisy's writings may be 
mentioned: "Les mythes babyloniens et les premiers 
chapitres de la Genese", Paris, 1901; "L'evangile et 
Feglise," 3d ed., 1904.) 

ScHEiL (v.). ficole des Hautes fitudes. Assyrian 
philology and antiquities, I. Interpretation of texts. 
Critical examination of the translations attempted by the 
first decipherers. II. Deciphering of epistolary texts. 

(Scheil has done so much valuable work that his 
name is familiar to every student of the cuneiform 
writings; beyond a reference to the texts which he edited 
for the "Memoires de la Delegation en Perse," among 
them the Code of Hammurabi, it would be impracticable 
to enumerate here his numerous important publications.) 

Vernes. ficole des Hautes fitudes. Religions of 
Israel and of the western Semites. I. Researches on 
the ancient organization of the clergy and of worship in 
Israel. II. Interpretation of Ecclesiastes. (Among 
Vernes' works may be mentioned: "Histoire des idees 
messianiques depuis Alexandre jusqu'a Tempereur 



SEMITIC PHILOLOGY 249 

Adrien/' Paris, 1874; "Du pretendu polytheisme des 
Hebreux; essai critique sur la religion du peuple d 'Israel 
suivi d'un examen de Fauthenticite des ecrits prophe- 
tiques/' Paris, 1891, 2 vols.). 

Libraries and Musemns. The following Libraries 
and Museums may be mentioned as having especial 
value for the student of Semitic philology and history. 
A detailed account of their several treasures worthy of 
mention is here impossible: Libraries: Bibliotheque de 
r Alliance Israelite; Bibliotheque d'Art de d'Archeologie; 
Bibliotheque du College de France; Bibliotheque de 
I'Ecole des Hautes Etudes; Bibliotheque de FEcole 
speciale des Langues orientales vivantes; Bibliotheque de 
FEcole normale Israelite; Bibliotheque de I'Ecole rab- 
binique centrale; Bibliotheque de ITmprimerie Nationale; 
Bibliotheque de ITnstitut Catholique; Bibliotheque de 
ITnstitut de France; Bibliotheque Mazarine; Biblio- 
theque du Musee Guimet; Bibliotheque Nationale; 
Bibhotheque Sainte-Genevieve; Bibliotheque de la 
Societe Asiatique; Bibliotheque de la Societe biblique 
protestante. Museums: i. Musee du Louvre; 2. Musee de 
la Bibliotheque Nationale; 3. Musee Guimet; 4. Musee 
monetaire. 



English Philology' 

We all know Taine's "Histoire de la Litterature ang- 
laise" which appeared in 1864. It has been translated 
into English, and it may be found, sometimes in an ab- 
breviated form, on the shelves of every bookshop and 
among the bethumbed volumes of every library. This 
book, despite its impatience of detail, may by its astonish- 
ing vogue introduce us at once to some of the dominating 
characteristics of French scholarship. French scholars 
have a talent for popularizing great ideas in a distinguish- 
ed way; and they are more profoundly interested in 
literature than in linguistics and grammar. 

This is not saying that linguistic studies in English 
do not appear in France. We may mention, at random, 
Derocquigny, '^A Contribution to the Study of the 
French Element in English,'' 1904; Barbeau, "On Dif- 
ferences between the use of the Definite Article in the 
Bible and in the Speech of To-day," 1904; Biard, 
"L' Article the et les caracteristiques differentielles de 
son emploi," 1908; Thomas, "On the Epic Verse of John 
Milton," 1901; and VERRiER,"Essaisur lesprincipes de la 
metrique anglaise," 1909; but the French incline to re- 
gard such investigations as subsidiary to the study of 
literature. 

Another history of English Literature, which is the 
work of the French Ambassador at Washington, and 
which is in the hands of every serious student of English 

^Drafting Committee: Arthur C. L. Brown, Northwestern Uni- 
versity; RoLLO W. Brown, Wabash College; John L. Lowes, Wash- 
ington University. — Ed. 

250 



ENGLISH PHILOLOGY 251 

is Jusserand's "Histoire litteraire du peuple anglais.'' 
This book, which is also known in an English version, 
appeared in several volumes from 1895 to 1909. More 
thoroughly documented than the History of Taine, more 
historical in tone, more inclusive of different origins and 
influences, Jusserand's History illustrates by its clarity 
and charm the prevailing tendencies of French scholarship. 
Jusserand is the author of numerous other works relating 
to English literature, among which are: "La vie nomade 
et les routes d'Angleterre au xiv^ Siecle,'' 1884 (known 
in an enlarged English version as "English Wayfaring 
Life in the Fourteenth Century,'' 1891); "Le Roman au 
temps de Shakespeare," 1887; and "Shakespeare en 
France sous I'ancien regime," 1898. 

French scholars of English have devoted the most of 
their energies to the modern period which begins with 
Wyatt and Surrey. Yet students who go abroad with a 
primary interest in the literature of mediaeval England 
can nowhere find more congenial surroundings for work 
than at the University of Paris, where the spirit of Gaston 
Paris, the prince of mediaevalists, still lingers, and where 
the most eminent of his pupils, such men as Jeanroy 
and Bedier, are publishing mediaeval studies that arouse 
the attention of the entire world of letters. Legouis' 
"Chaucer," 191 2, which in the English translation by 
Lailavoix has become a standard book of reference in our 
college courses in Chaucer, is an example of French work 
in the older period of English A good specimen of a 
French thesis in this field is Miss Spurgeon's "Chaucer 
devant la critique en Angleterre et en France depuis son 
temps jusqu' a nos jours," 191 1. 

In literary criticism of the Modern English period, 
the French surpass every other foreign nation. It is 
advantageous for a student of English to learn to look 
at our literature sometimes from a foreign point of view, 



252 PHILOLOGY 

and no foreigners have looked at English so steadily and 
so discerningly as have the French. 

Beljame, who till 1906 held in the University of Paris 
the chair of English which is now occupied by Legouis, 
began a new era in French criticism of English by the 
publication in 1881 of his "Le Public et les hommes de 
lettres en Angleterre au xviii^ siecle." Other works deal- 
ing with a period or a movement have followed, for exam- 
ple: Cazamian, "Le Romantisme social en Angleterre/' 
1904; Bastide, "John Locke, ses theories politiques et leur 
influence en Angleterre,'' 1906; Guyot, "Le Socialisme 
et revolution de FAngleterre contemporaine," 1913. 

For the most part, however, French scholarship has 
turned to the study of individual authors. The first of 
these studies in date is Staffer's "Laurence Sterne," 
1870, and perhaps the most charming is Angellier's 
"Robert Burns," 1893. Only a few others can be men- 
tioned merely as examples : Feuillerat (a scholar who is 
also known for his studies of English theatrical com- 
panies), "John Lyly," 1910; Delattre, " Robert Herrick," 
1911; Morel, "James Thomson," 1895; Legouis, "La 
Jeunesse de W. Wordsworth," 1896; Derocquigny, 
"Charles Lamb," 1904; Lauvriere, "Edgar A. Poe," 
1904; and Dhaleine, "Nathaniel Hawthorne, sa vie et 
ses oeuvres," 1905. These are books of an average 
length of five hundred pages, which represent from five 
to ten years' toil for the French ^ 'doctorat es lettres. ' ' They 
display the most painstaking research combined with un- 
usual skill in expression. In each of them the effort is 
to study the author's life as throwing light on his writings, 
and his writings, in turn, as illuminating his character. 

Hedgcock's "David Garrick and his French friends," 
191 2, is an expansion of his thesis which was written at 
Paris. Masseck's "Richard Jefferies: Etude d'une per- 
sonnalite," 1913, is a good example of a thesis for the new 








!:rv 



M. 



-^ 




\^r''^^ 



JEAN JULES JUSSERAND (185 5-) 



ENGLISH PHILOLOGY 



ENGLISH PHILOLOGY 253 

"Doctorat de rUniversite de Paris.'' Studies like these 
show how well French scholars have guarded their pupils 
from the pitfalls of inaccuracy and vagueness, and at the 
same time have stimulated them to sympathetic literary 
appreciation. 

Instruction at the Universities. The student of 
EngHsh who goes to France will naturally estabHsh him- 
self at Paris. Here is the great hbrary, the Bibliotheque 
Nationale, with its 3,000,000 volumes, and 110,000 
manuscripts, and almost unHmited resources. Other 
libraries such as the BibHotheque Mazarine, the Biblio- 
theque Sainte-Genevieve, the latter in the immediate 
neighborhood of the Sorbonne, may also interest him as 
convenient places for all ordinary researches. There is 
also of course, the library of the Sorbonne itself, with its 
"salle de travail" and numerous special collections. 

In the Faculte des Lettres, Legouis and Cazamian lec- 
ture regularly on some special topic in English literature 
with appropriate ^ ^conferences' ' and exercises. In 1 9 1 4-1 5 
Legouis lectured on The Life and Work of Edmund Spen- 
ser, and Cazamian on Special Topics relating to the His- 
tory of Civilization in England. Beside, the works above 
mentioned, Cazamian has written, "Carlyle," 1913, and 
**L'Angleterre moderne, son evolution," 1914. Huchon, 
author of "George Crabbe," 1907, also lectures on The 
History of the Enghsh Language and Its Anglo-Saxon 
Origins, with a * ^conference" in which an Anglo-Saxon text 
is read. 

The student of EngHsh will naturally take also courses 
relating to his special interests. If he is pursuing the 
comparative study of Hterature, he will follow the lectures 
of Baldensperger, author of various books, as for ex- 
ample: "La Litterature, Creation, Succes, Duree," 1913. 
If he is investigating the mediaeval field, he will hear 



254 PHILOLOGY 

Bedier, renowned for his '^Les Fabliaux/* 1893, and "Les 
Legendes epiques/' 1908-13, or Jeanroy for his "Les 
Origines de la poesie lyrique en France au moyen age/' 
1889. If he is a student of Celtic influences on EngHsh, 
he will hear Loth, known for his "Les Mabinogion, 
traduits en frangais avec un commentaire explicatif,*' 
1913, and Gaidoz, as the founder of "Melusine'' and 
the "Revue celtique." If he is interested in palaeo- 
graphy, he will be delighted by the unexampled facilities 
of the ficole des Chartes. If he has a turn for linguistics, 
he will hear Thomas, one of the editors of the *^Diction- 
naire general de la langue frangaise/' Brunot, who is 
writing the as yet unfinished "Histoire de la langue 
frangaise des origines a 1900" (5 vols., 1906-13), and 
Roques, one of the authors of the "Etude de Geogra- 
phic linguistique," 191 2. If he is interested in the renais- 
sance, he will follow the courses of Lefranc, editor of 
" Calvin, ITnstitution chretienne," 191 1, and of "Rabelais, 
Oeuvres completes," 191 2-13. If he inclines to the 
modern field, he will attend the lectures of Lanson, 
author of the "Histoire de la litterature frangaise,'* 1895. 
Whatever his subsidiary interest may be, whether for 
example in History, or Spanish, or Italian, or mediaeval 
Latin, he will find these subjects expounded weekly by a 
master. 

In the smaller universities of France, the chair of 
English is often occupied by a scholar of distinction. 
At Rennes, the professor of English is Feuillerat, and 
at Lille, Derocquigny; the writings of these men have 
already been mentioned. At Bordeaux, the professor 
of English is Cestre, author of "Les Poetes anglais et 
la Revolution frangaise," 1905; at Caen is Barbeau, 
who wrote "Une Ville d'eau anglaise au xvitf Siecle," 
1904; and at Poitiers is Castelain, author of "La Vie 
et Tceuvre de Ben Jonson," 1906. 



ENGLISH PHILOLOGY 255 

Although in the provincial universities instruction in 
English is not often carried into the higher branches, 
the serious student will be sure to find lectures on some 
subsidiary topic that will help him to understand the 
life and the literature of the past. At Bordeaux, for 
example, he may profit by the lectures of Le Breton, 
author of "Le Roman au xvif Siecle," 1898, and 
"Balzac, Thomme et Toeuvre," 1905. If he is interested 
in folklore, he may at Rennes hear the courses of 
DoTTiN, known for his "Manuel d'irlandais moyen,'' 
1913, and of Le Braz, author of "La Legende de la mort 
chez les Bretons armoricains," 1893, and "Au Pays de 
pardons," 1894. It is worthy of note that numerous 
French scholars of Kterary eminence are unconnected 
with a university, but teach in a "lycee," as for example 
Pellissier, author of "Le Mouvement litteraire au xix® 
Siecle,'' 1899; ^-nd "Le Mouvement litteraire contempo- 
rain,'^ 1901. 



Philosophy 



Philosophy' 

"The role of France in the evolution of modern phil- 
osophy is perfectly clear: France has been the great 
initiator. Elsewhere as well there have appeared phil- 
osophers of genius; but nowhere has there been, as in 
France, an uninterrupted continuity of original philo- 
sophical creation." Does this claim of Bergson ("La 
Science frangaise,'^ I, 15) in behalf of French philosophy 
appear too sweeping? Yet even a slight survey of the 
course of French thought goes far towards justifying 
it. Not that French philosophers have always developed 
their ideas systematically and in detail; on the contrary 
they have shown a certain distrust of system-making, 
preferring instead to keep their ideas in close contact 
with the concrete problems of experience which suggested 
them. The happy result of this tendency is seen in the 
pecuHarly intimate relation throughout French history 
between philosophy and the other main thought-currents 
of the day, literary and art criticism, social and political 
movements, rehgious reforms, scientific discoveries and 
achievements. Perhaps in no country as in France have 
the current philosophical ideas permeated and influenced 
the great mass of the people. No nation has lived so 
concretely its philosophy. 

Two of the most fundamental but opposed methods 
and tendencies in all modern thought were initiated by 
Frenchmen. Descartes gave to modern rationalism its 

1 [Drafting Committee: R. B. Perry, Harvard University; J. H. 
Tufts, University of Chicago; C. B. Vibbert, University of Michigan; 
R. M. Wenley, University of Michigan. — Ed.] 

259 



26o PHILOSOPHY 

method and main outlines; but he also left open a way of 
interpreting problems which, taken up and developed by 
Pascal, has furnished the method for all succeeding anti- 
rationalistic and romantic philosophies. In the eight- 
eenth century the Encyclopaedists, extending the 
method of Descartes to psychological, social, ethical and 
religious phenomena, sketched the outlines of all future 
materialism. At the same time Rousseau, continuing 
the tradition of Pascal in his own unique way, inaugurated 
the romantic movement. 

At the very beginning of the nineteenth century 
appear two thinkers whose ideas and methods of proced- 
ure were destined to develop into the two most opposed 
tendencies in French philosophy to-day. Maine de 
BiRAN, in his "Essai sur les fondements de la psychologic 
et sur ses rapports avec Fetude de la nature,'* 1812, re- 
affirmed the tendency, employed so successfully by 
Descartes, of making self-conscious analysis the basis for 
metaphysics. On the one hand, he attached himself to 
the Ideologists who continued the tradition of CoN- 
DiLLAc's sensational psychology; but, on the other, he 
so deepened the scope of this psychology that he made 
it reveal the inner consciousness of man as a continually 
unfolding dynamic process in which the sense of effort is 
central and in which man's freedom is revealed. On the 
basis of this psychological analysis Maine de Biran sug- 
gested the possibilities of a spiritualistic interpretation 
not only of human nature but also of physical nature. 
This suggestion, taken up and developed by Victor 
Cousin, Fehx Ravaisson, Jules Lachelier, fimile 
BouTROUX, Henri Bergson, and others, has continued 
down to the present day as one of the most original 
strands of ideaHstic thought in the nineteenth century. 

Unfortunately Cousin mingled Maine de Biran's fruitful 
suggestions with diverse and incongruous elements 




PHILOSOPHY 



PHILOSOPHY 261 

into a shallow Eclecticism, altogether too subservient 
to conservative political ends and the requirements of 
a school philosophy. Ravaisson, on the contrary, in 
"De Thabitude'* and *^ Rapport sur la philosophic en 
France au xixe siecle," making full use of de Biran's 
method and ideas, but also drawing on Aristotle, Leibnitz, 
and Schelling, arrived at a comprehensive realistic spirit- 
ualism in which nature appears as a refraction or diminu- 
tion of mind (^ ^esprit") . Falling under the spell of Ravaisson 
but also profoundly influenced by Kant, whose thought he 
introduced into academic circles in France, Lachelier, 
in ^'Du fondement de Finduction," "Etude sur le syl- 
logisme," and "Psychologie et metaphysique," has 
demonstrated the necessity of subordinating ultimately 
physical causation and mechanism to final causation and 
teleology. Influenced alike by Ravaisson's doctrine of 
habit as the analogy most illuminating in interpreting 
the relation between the material and spiritual aspects 
of our experience and by Lachelier's criticism of the 
causal concept, Boutroux, in "De la contingence des 
lois de la nature, " and " De Tidee de loi naturelle," sketches 
an evolutionary conception of the world in which laws, 
conceived on the analogy of habits, are contingent and 
ever in course of development. 

In this same general current of tradition stands Berg- 
son. In a brilliant series of monographs, * ^ Essai sur les don- 
nees immediates de la conscience," "Matiere et memoire," 
and "L'fivolution creatrice,'' he has attempted, on the 
one hand, to show the fallacy involved in the method of 
intellectual analysis and the inadequacy of the rational, 
mechanical interpretation of the world in which it in- 
evitably issues; on the other hand, he has endeavored to 
display the fruitfulness of intuition as the method which 
can reveal the immediately given data which make up 
our concrete experience. On the basis of these data the 



262 PHILOSOPHY 

world discloses itself to us as a qualitative process of 
continuous change, unfolding itself after the manner of 
our innermost psychological life of which the very 
essence is time. Closely associated with this same ten- 
dency, though basing their conclusions more directly on a 
critical examination of the methods and results of science, 
are the three mathematicians, the late Henri Poincare, 
Gaston Milhaud, and Edouard LeRoy. Milhaud and 
LeRoy have recently entered the ranks of professional 
philosophers. 

In sharp contrast to this spiritualistic tendency in 
French thought is the current which is characterized, on 
the one hand, by the attempt to make the study of social 
relations the starting point for the solution of all philo- 
sophical problems; and, on the other hand, by its method, 
called Positivistic, which maintains that explanation 
consists in stating as accurately as possible the constant 
relations which are observed to hold between our sense- 
impressions, elimination having been made of all theories, 
hypotheses, or other intellectual interpretations. Saint- 
Simon in his "Reorganisation de la societe europeenne" 
and numerous other works emphasized the first phase of 
the movement. His pupil, Auguste Comte, added to it 
the method, and thus became the founder of Positivism. 
The systematic application of this method to social re- 
lations in his great work, " Cours de philosophic positive," 
entitles Comte to the honor of founding the strict science of 
Sociology. The dominant idea in his doctrine of the classi- 
fication of the sciences — that the sciences are arranged in 
a hierarchy of increasing complexity passing from mathe- 
matics to sociology, and that the subject matter of no 
science is reducible to the laws and principles of another — 
has become almost an axiom of subsequent thought. 

If the positivistic method be interpreted broadly as a 
distrust of all metaphysics and as a demand to keep to 



PHILOSOPHY 263 

concrete problems, especially the problems of man's 
social and historical life, then is it possible to attach to 
this same tradition Ernest Renan and Hippolyte Taine. 
Not, however, that the standpoint of either of these 
original thinkers can be identified the one with the other 
or with orthodox Positivism. Renan, in his "Dialogues 
et fragments philosophiques'^ and "L'Avenir de la 
science, " supports the standpoint of scientific probabihsm ; 
while Taine, in his famous work '^De Fintelligence'^ 
unfolds and illustrates the method of intellectual analysis. 
Both Renan and Taine are quite as well, if not better, 
known for their great historical than for their philoso- 
phical works. (Vide Rena,n: "Les origines du Christia- 
nisme," "Histoire du peuple dTsrael," "Vie de Jesus;" 
Taine: "Histoire de la litterature anglaise" and "Les 
origines de la France contemporaine.") 

Today the tradition of Positivism is represented by a 
very influential and closely organized school with an organ 
of its own, "L'Annee sociologique.'' Emile Durkheim, 
the recognized leader of the school, has developed the 
method of its procedure in "Les regies de la methode 
sociologique." This method has been carried out in a 
systematic and brilKant manner by Durkheim, in "De la 
division du travail," "Le suicide," ''Les formes elementaires 
de la vie rehgieuse" and other studies; by Levy-Bruhl, 
in "La morale et la science des mceurs" and "Les fonc- 
tions mentales dans les societes inferieures;" by C. 
BouGLE in "Le regime des castes;" by H. Hubert and 
M. Mauss, in "Le sacrifice," "La magie," and other 
studies; by Fr. Simiand, in "Le salaire des ouvriers des 
mines;" by M. Halbwachs in "La classe ouvriere et les 
niveaux de vie;" and by numerous others in the studies 
of "L'Annee sociologique." 

Aside from its spirituaHstic and positivistic tendencies, 
French thought has shown its vigor and originality in 



264 PHILOSOPHY 

several other directions. Taking as his point of depart- 
ure the philosophy of Kant but stressing especially the 
Critique of Practical Reason, Charles Renouvier worked 
his way out to a strictly independent standpoint in 
his "Essais de critique generale/' He afhrms the inde- 
pendence of the human person; he shows how freedom 
must be reintegrated in the very structure of the world. 
Among the thinkers who have attached themselves to 
this standpoint of Neo-Criticism are the late F. Pillon, 
for many years the editor of the organ founded by 
Renouvier, ^^L'Annee philosophique^'; the late O. Hame- 
lin; and L. Dauriac. 

Drawing his inspiration alike from the philosophy of 
Plato, which he so brilliantly expounded in his earlier 
years, and from the doctrine of evolution which made 
such a profound impression on French thought in the latter 
part of the nineteenth century, Alfred Fouillee arrived 
at an evolutionary conception of the world which is both 
strictly rational and teleological. This evolution is 
mediated through what Fouillee has called "idees- 
forces,'' ideas which are at the same time activities 
tending to realize themselves. This doctrine he has set 
forth in "L'£ volution des idees-forces," "La psychologie 
des idees-forces," and numerous other works. His nephew, 
J. M. GuYAU, supported vigorously this same doctrine 
till his untimely death. 

We have touched upon only a few of the more promi- 
nent and original currents in French thought in the nine- 
teenth century which are still influential to-day. Limi- 
tation prevents us from more than mentioning several 
other tendencies. The profound movement in the phi- 
losophy of religion, generally known as Modernism, has 
been developed within very liberal Catholic circles mostly 
by French thinkers such as Loisy, Maurice Blondel, La- 
BERTHONNiERE, E. LeRoy, Fonsegrive, Wilbois, and 



PHILOSOPHY 265 

others. In Protestant circles Auguste Sabatier has origi- 
nated a new and profound doctrine in his works : " Esquisse 
d'une philosophie de la religion d'apres la psychologic 
etrhistoire"and^*Les religions d'autorite et la religion de 
Fesprit." French scientists have always shown a veritable 
genius for developing the logic of their own methods 
and subjecting them to criticism. Within the last third of 
a century scientific logic and methodology has been almost 
completely transformed by the works of Claude Bernard, 
Ant. CouRNOT, Paul and Jules Tannery, Lechalas, 
CouTURAT, DuHEM, PicARD, Perrin, Borel, Pierre 
BouTROUx, Henri and Lucien Poincare, Bloch, Winter, 
Meyerson, and many others. Highly important contri- 
butions have been made to the fields of ethics, aesthetics, 
history of philosophy, psychology and social philosophy. 
Inadequate as such a brief sketch as this must be in even 
suggesting the full originality of French philosophical 
thought, still it must suffice, since the prospective student 
of philosophy in France is likely to be more interested 
in the actual organization of the courses in the French 
schools to-day than in the achievements of the past. 

Instruction at the Universities. Paris, It is a trite 
statement that Paris is the intellectual center of France; 
yet so far at least as philosophy is concerned this is 
literally true. The courses at the Faculty of Letters of 
the University of Paris and at the College de France 
represent only a small portion of the entire philosophical 
activity of the capital. Outside the University teaching 
staff are many men prominent in the philosophical 
world: editors and staff-men of the various publications 
and men in private life, such as X. Leon, H. Berr, P. 
Gaultier, L. Dauriac, R. Berthelot, L. Weber, M. 
Winter, Fr. Paulhan, G. Palante; administrators of the 
educational system, such as L. Liard, G. Belot, J. 



266 PHILOSOPHY 

Lachelier, E. Boutroux; teachers in lycees, colleges, 
private and technical schools, such as D. Parodi, Fonse- 
GRiVE, Malapert, Bazaillos, Cresson, Dunan, Piat, 
Sertillanges, Halevy, Lechalas. It is possible from 
time to time for the foreign student to come into direct 
contact with the thought of some of these men through 
the special courses arranged from year to year at the 
ficole des Hautes fitudes sociales and the College libra 
des Sciences sociales and through the discussions of the 
Societe frangaise de Philosophic. This latter society, 
founded in 1901, has become the great clearing-house 
for philosophical ideas in France. The hospitahty of its 
meetings, held monthly from December to May, is not 
infrequently extended to foreigners through the courtesy 
of some member. 

At the College de France and at the Sorbonne the 
greatest freedom is allowed the lecturers in the choice of 
the subjects which they treat; consequently no definite 
description of courses can be given. At the College de 
France Bergson lectures twice a week, one hour pre- 
senting some phase of his own philosophy, the other hour 
expounding the work of some classical philosopher. 
During 1914-15 and 191 5-6, LeRoy of the Lycee Saint- 
Louis has been substituting for Bergson. He has been 
lecturing on the modern criticism of experimental science 
and its philosophical consequences, a theme which he 
brilliantly developed a few years ago in a series of studies 
in "La Revue de metaphysique et de morale," 1899-1901. 
IzouLET, who occupies the chair of Social Philosophy, 
usually treats of some phase of French social development 
in the eighteenth or nineteenth century. He is widely 
known for his work on "La cite moderne." Pierre 
Janet, perhaps the most distinguished representative of 
pathological psychology today, treats of a wide range of 
subjects within his field. 



PHILOSOPHY 267 

At the Faculty of Letters about a third of the courses 
are organized exclusively with reference to the require- 
ments for obtaining the two French degrees, the "licence" 
and the "diplome d'etudes superieures," and for passing 
the competitive examination, known as the "agregation,'^ 
which aims at selecting teachers for the lycees and 
colleges. The rest of the courses cover an unlimited 
range of subjects. Delacroix, the most distinguished 
representative of psychology of religion in France, 
usually deals with some phase of this subject. (Vide his 
*^Essai sur le mysticisme speculatif en Allemagne au 
XlVe siecle" and "Etudes d'histoire et de psychologic 
du mysticisme.'') Brunschvicg is best known for his 
study in Spinoza and his work on the logic of mathe- 
matics, "Les etapes de la philosophic mathematique." 
Lalande always expounds some phase of the logic and 
methods of science. {Vide his "La dissolution opposee 
a revolution dans les sciences physiques et morales.") 
MiLHAUD has made some remarkable contributions to 
the history, criticism, and logic of science in his "Essai 
sur les conditions et les limites de la certitude logique," 
"Le rationnel," and his two series of studies in the 
history of scientific thought. L. Robin has charge of 
the work in ancient philosophy, and F. Picavet of the 
work in mediaeval philosophy. The former has pro- 
duced two excellent studies in Plato: "Theorie platoni- 
cienne des idees et des nombres d'apres Aristote" and 
"La theorie platonicienne de Tamour." The latter has 
written two of the most accurate and impartial histories 
of mediaeval philosophy and theology ever produced: 
"Esquisse d'une histoire generale et comparee des 
philosophies medievales" and "Essais sur I'histoire 
generale et comparee des theologies et des philosophies 
medievales." Of the achievements of Durkheim and 
two of his associates at the Sorbonne, Levy-Bruhl and 



268 PHILOSOPHY 

BouGLE, we have already spoken. Durkheim occupies 
the combined chair of Education and Sociology, and 
usually presents courses along both of these lines. Levy- 
Bruhl always lectures on some aspect of the history of 
modern philosophy. Bougle holds the chair of Social 
Economy; in 1 914-5 he treated the following subjects: 
"La formation du socialisme democratique en France de 
1830 a 1848" and "Recherches sur Feconomie politique 
et la morale sociale.^^ G. Dumas, who fills the chair of 
Experimental Psychology, keeps closely to the French tra- 
dition of treating this subject from the pathological 
standpoint. He has written several notable works: 
"Le sourire,'* "La tristesse et la joie," "Psychologic de 
deux messies positivistes.^' 

Other Universities, Though Paris offers a wealth of 
talent in philosophy both within and without the Uni- 
versity which cannot be duplicated in any other center 
in France, still there is a large number of notable and 
original thinkers occupying chairs of philosophy in 
the other fifteen universities scattered throughout the 
country. Maurice Blondel became one of the initia- 
tors of the Modernistic movement through his famous 
work entitled "L'Action.'' At Bordeaux are Brehier, 
who has written one of the best works on Schelling, and 
RuYSSEN, who has produced some excellent studies in the 
history of philosophy, especially on Kant and Schopen- 
hauer. Abel Rey, at the University of Dijon, has 
vigorously championed the extreme mechanical standpoint 
of science in his two works: " L 'Energetique et le 
mecanisme'' and "La theorie de la physique chez les 
physiciens contemporains.'' E. Goblot, at the Univer- 
sity of Lyon, has done some very original work in the 
classification of the sciences. Foucault, at the Uni- 
versity of MontpeUier, and Bourdon, at the University 



PHILOSOPHY 269 

of Rennes, are both well known for their investigations 
in psychology. (Vide Foucault: "La psychophysique " 
and "Le reve'^; Bourdon: "De Fexpression des emotions 
et des tendances dans le langage.'O P. Soiiriau, at the 
University of Nancy, has made very valuable contribu- 
tions to the subject of aesthetics: "La reverie esthetique/* 
"La beaute rationnelle/' and "La suggestion dans Tart.'' 
Mauxion and Rivaud, at the University of Poitiers, 
have both contributed to the history of philosophy, the 
former by his works on Herbart, the latter by his work 
on Spinoza and his study in "Le probleme du devenir 
et la notion de la matiere, des origines jusqu'a Theo- 
phraste." 

But these are only a few philosophers among many in 
the provincial universities whose achievements entitle them 
to special mention. This sketch can only be suggestive. 

Since the work in all the French universities is highly 
co-ordinated under one central administration, there are 
no difficulties in passing from one university to another 
without loss of time, grade, or privileges. This makes 
it possible to seek out anywhere in France the represen- 
tative of any line of work in which one may be interested 
and to pursue one's studies under his direction. If to 
the unusually varied and intense creative activity mani- 
fested by French philosophy today be added the very 
hospitable and generous attitude of the administration 
of philosophical studies toward foreigners, especially 
Americans, there would seem to be every reason why an 
increasing number of students from the United States 
should avail themselves of the opportunities which France 
offers. 



Physics 



Physics 



Some forty years ago a young American physicist 
conceived, planned, and executed an experiment of 
unusual difficulty. He impressed upon a small electric 
charge a speed so great that this charge, while in motion, 
exhibited the magnetic properties of an ordinary electric 
current — a phenomenon of first importance. The 
manipulative skill required for this experiment was so 
great that more than one European physicist, attempting 
to repeat the process, failed. Most noteworthy of these 
failures was that of Cremieu, working under the auspices 
of the Sorbonne, with an equipment which left little 
to be desired. In the meantime (1900), the original work 
had been repeated and verified by another young Ameri- 
can physicist, who was invited by the University of Paris 
to come to France and repeat the experiment in conjunc- 
tion with Cremieu, in order that all doubt might be re- 
solved and the facts of the case established. The invita- 
tion was accepted; the two men working together dis- 
covered the cause of Cremieu's negative results, and then 
wrote up their work in a joint paper {Phys, Rev,, 1903) 
which established, probably for all time, the original 
discovery. 

This incident is mentioned merely as an illustration 
of that openness of mind, receptivity for new ideas, and 
love of truth which is thoroughly characteristic of the 
French man of science. It was this same attitude of mind 

^[Drafting Committee: Henry Crew, Northwestern University; 
A. A. MiCHELSON, University of Chicago; W. C. Sabine, Harvard 
University. — Ed.] 

273 - 



274 PHYSICS 

which prompted the French to invite another American 
to Paris when they decided to determine the metre in 
terms of the wavelength of Hght. 

A second characteristic of the French scholar is a 
quality of mind best described, in terms of his own 
language, as " clarte." It is that ability in clear exposition 
which comes only to him who has studied the matter 
profoundly. The lucidity of the French treatise is that 
of an author who has renounced every idea which he has 
not made thoroughly his own. 

A third characteristic of the French investigator is of 
interest to every young man who is thinking of studying 
abroad, namely, his vivacious good humor, his lightness 
of touch, his cheerful, optimistic disposition. No one 
esteems these traits more highly than the man who 
works in a physcial laboratory. 

The high originality which is typical of the French 
mind may, perhaps, be best illustrated by running briefly 
over a few of the contributions which this nation has 
made to some of the subdivisions of physics. 

A backward glance at the Uterature of the world soon 
convinces one that the classics are not many in number. 
The mature student of any subject, indeed, finds the 
facts and phenomena multitudinous, while its principles 
may usually be counted upon the fingers of two hands. 
In Hke manner, one who considers the history of any 
science finds not many names of the first rank. The chief 
actors are few, but of these France has had a very large 
share. 

If modern physics may be dated from the birth of 
Newton and the death of Galileo (1642) — the time 
when HuYGENS, Descartes, Pascal, and Torricelli 
were in their prime — and if one makes an inventory of 
fundamental ideas introduced during the nearly three 
centuries which have followed that date, the chances 



PHYSICS 275 

are that he will be somewhat surprised at the role which 
the investigators of France have continuously played. 
For the features of a landscape upon which a people Hve 
are not more permanent than the intellectual character 
of that people. 

As regards Mechanics: Father Mersenne investi- 
gated the dynamics of vibrating strings as early as 1636 — 
six years before the birth of Newton. Varignon shares 
with Newton the credit of introducing the new dynamics 
— now called the Newtonian dynamics. His "Project" 
appeared in the same year with Newton's "Principia'' 
and quite independently of it. 

Students of Mechanics can never forget the three 
brilliant contemporaries — d'Alembert, Lagrange, and 
Laplace — who were Hving in Paris when Benjamin 
Franklin was there, so ably representing the American 
cause. A half century later Poinsot created our rota- 
tional dynamics; later this was followed by the experi- 
mental researches of Foucault on the pendulum and 
gyrostat. Eminent contributions to the theory of 
elasticity and wave-motion came from Poisson and 
Cauchy; work along the same line being carried on to- 
day by BoussiNESQ and Hadamard. 

In the domain of vibrating bodies, the names of 
Lagrange, Fourier, Lissajous, and Koenig at once come 
up. A distinct and important contribution to thermal 
science is recognized at the mention of each of the follow- 
ing men, Carnot, Clapeyron, Dulong and Petit, 
Regnault, Becquerel, Pouillet, Amagat, Chappuis, 
GuiLLAUME. The wave theory of Hght — the theory of 
transverse vibrations — was created and established 
largely by Fresnel, Arago, Cauchy, Jamin, Fizeau, 
Foucault, Cornu, and Mascart. 

Just as the quantitative side of Electrostatics was 
set forth by Coulomb, so the quantitative description 



276 PHYSICS 

of Electromagnetism was first given by Ampere, Biot 
and Savart. Fourier's formulation of heat-conduction 
was early adapted by Ohm to the case of electric conduc- 
tion. Gramme in 1876 sent to America two of his new 
generators, equipped with ring-armatures of his own 
design; these machines mark the beginning of a new era 
of large electric currents and of electrical transmission of 
power. 

In the field of radioactivity, Becquerel and the 
Curies are known even to the man on the street. 

Instruction in the Universities. Paris. To-day this 
brilliant succession of investigators is continued, in the 
Faculte des Sciences of the University of Paris, by such 
productive scholars as Boussinesq, who is lecturing on 
Heat Conduction; Bouty, who offers courses on Thermo- 
dynamics; LiPPMANN, whose subject is announced as 
Electrocapillarity and Optics; and Mme. Curie, whose 
topic is naturally Radioactivity. Still other courses in 
physics are offered by Leduc Cotton Abraham, and 

KOENIGS. 

In the department of Mathematics, certain other 
lectures with a physical trend are given by Appell, 
GxncHARD, Drach, and others. 

The astrophysical investigations of Deslandres in 
the observatory at Meudon are known to be of the 
highest order and along the same Hnes in which Hale 
in our own country has acquired eminence. 

Many advanced students in physics wiU be interested 
in the opportunities for work along the closely related line 
of Physical Chemistry in which courses are offered by 
Le Chatelier, Urbain, and Perrin. In the College 
de France, the work of Langevin in experimental physics 
and Hadamard in mathematical physics is well known 
in America. 



PHYSICS 277 

iBoth at the Sorbonne and at the College de France 
the laboratory equipment is remarkably complete and 
quite available. 

Other Universities, But the opportunities which 
France offers for higher work in Physics are not limited 
to Paris. 

Along the western portion of the country lie the well 
known Universities of Rennes, Poitiers, and Bordeaux. 
At the first named institution, Le Roux offers distin- 
guished courses in Mechanics, pure and applied; at 
PoiTtERS, one finds Garbe and Turpain, in Physics. 
DuHEM, whom the world has just lost, has made Bor- 
deaux a familiar name in Physics everywhere. Here 
H. Benard offers opportunities in general physics. 

Among the many charms of Southern France are 
always to be included the three renowned universities 
at Toulouse, Montpellier, and Marseille. Bouasse and 
CossERAT, in Physics and Astronomy respectively, are 
among the leading men on the staff at Toulouse. Meslin 
is in charge of Physics at MontpeUier, Some American 
students, whose work is now well known, have already 
enjoyed the privileges of study at the city of Marseille, 
at once so ancient and so very modern. Here wiU be 
found a distinguished trio of productive scholars in L. 
HoulLevique, C. Fabry, and H. Buisson. It is doubt- 
ful if better opportunities for research in Spectroscopy 
are to be found in any other place. 

At Lyon, a little farther north, yet still in the southern 
half of France, the student of Physics will find unusual 
opportunities with the well known investigator, Georges 

GOUY. 

The above mentioned are but a portion of the facilities, 
intellectual and material, to which France generously 
opens wide the door. 



Political Science 

INCLUDING 

ECONOMICS AND 
INTERNATIONAL LAW 



Political Science' 

Creative achievement in the legal and political sciences 
has long been eminent in France, as is testified by the 
early commentaries and treatises of Cujas, Doneau, 

BODIN, GODEFROY, DUMOULIN, DOMAT, POTHIER, ROUS- 

SEAu, Montesquieu, and many others. During the 
early and middle nineteenth century, the literature of 
poHtical science was enriched by the writings of Benjamin 
Constant, Royer-Collard, Chateaubriand, Guizot, 
Rossi, de Tocqueville, de Broglie, Prevost-Paradol, 
Jules Simon, Vivien, Dupont-White, Laboulaye, and 
a host of others. As early as 1834 a chair of constitutional 
law was estabhshed at Paris; it was occupied for ten 
years by the famous Rossi, who resigned it in 1845 to 
become ambassador to Rome. In 1871 fimile Boutmy 
founded at Paris the ^'Ecole Libre des Sciences PoK- 
tiques," a school which has done much to stimulate inter- 
est in the study of political science, and which is today 
attended by a large number of students. Boutmy during 
his lifetime contributed much to the literature of political 
science, and his works are well-known and admired in 
America. 

The achievements of recent French scholarship in this 
field, as in so many others, have not generally been ap- 
preciated at their full value in America. In quantity of 
output the Germans have undoubtedly outstripped the 
French. But in quahty the contributions of French 

1 [Drafting Committee: J. W. Garner, University of Illinois; 
L. C. Marshall, University of Chicago; J. S. Reeves, University of 
Michigan; A. P. Usher, Cornell University. — Ed.] 

281 



282 POLITICAL SCIENCE 

scholars to scientific literature surpass in lucidity, order- 
liness of arrangement, and attractiveness of style, those 
of any other nation. It may be seriously doubted whether 
any other country at present has a larger group of distin- 
guished authorities or a richer literature in the fields of in- 
ternational law and administrative science. 

In more recent years the literature of Constitutional 
Law has been enriched by the scholarly contributions of 
Saleilles, Esmein, Larnaude, Jeze, Duguit, Hauriou, 
MoREAU, Barthelemy, Berthelemy, and others, all of 
whom (except the first two) are still active. Esmein, who 
died in 1913, was recognized as the highest authority on 
French constitutional law and legal history. His works 
are many, the best known being his "Histoire du droit 
frangais" and his "Elements de droit constitutionnel 
frangais et compare. '^ The latter is recognized in France 
as the standard treatise; it has gone through many edi- 
tions, and is well known in America. Of the living scholars 
in this field, Duguit, professor in the University of Bor- 
deaux, occupies the first place among the French authori- 
ties on political science and constitutional law. His best 
known works are his "Traite de droit constitutionnel'' 
(2 vols.), "Les transformations du droit public," "Etudes 
de droit public'' (2 vols.), and "Le droit social"; the 
first mentioned work is one of the most valuable treatises 
on comparative constitutional law and government to be 
found in any language, and for the study of the French 
constitution it is indispensable. 

In the field of Administrative Science and Administra- 
tive Law, French scholars have long excelled those of 
other countries. The older treatises of Cormenin 
("Questions de droit administratif," 2 vols., 1822), 
Serrigny ("Traite de droit public des Frangais," 2 vols., 



POLITICAL SCIENCE 283 

1845), and Vivien ("Etudes administratives/' 2 vols., 
1852), laid the foundations of a great branch of juris- 
prudence such as is not found in America. This literature 
was later enriched by the more comprehensive treatises 
of Laferriere ("Traite de la juridiction administrative," 
2 vols., 1 887-1 888; the standard work on the subject), 
of Batbie ("Traite theorique et pratique du droit pubHc 
et administratif," 7 vols., 1862), and Dufour, ("Traite 
general de droit administratif," 8 vols., 1867-1870). 
Of the living authorities in this field, the best known are 
Berthelemy of Paris, whose "Traite de droit adminis- 
tratif is regarded in France as the standard general 
authority on French administrative law; Jeze, Hkewise 
of Paris, whose recently published work, "Les principes 
generaux du droit administratif,'' reflects the highest 
credit upon French scholarship; Hauriou, of Toulouse, 
author of many works in this field, the best known of 
which is his "Precis de droit administratif et de droit 
public'' (8th ed., 1914); Moreau, of Aix-Marseilles, 
author of a notable study entitled "Le reglement ad- 
ministratif;'' Bremond; Jacquelin; Tessier; Cahen; 
and others, the titles of whose studies it is impossible 
for lack of space to mention. It may be safely said 
that no other country has produced so many distin- 
guished writers in this field, or a literature so extensive 
and valuable. 

In the field of International Law, both public and 
private, the French have likewise long held a preeminent 
place. No other country has produced a larger number 
of high authorities or a more extensive and scholarly 
literature. It is impossible here to do more than merely 
mention the names of the leading authorities. By com- 
mon consent, Renault of Paris is recognized as occupy- 
ing the first place among the scholars of France, if not 



284 POLITICAL SCIENCE 

of the world, as an authority on international law. 
In 1907 he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. As- 
sociated with him in the University of Paris are 
PiEDELiEVRE and PiLLET, whose contributions to the 
literature of the law of war are regarded with high respect, 
and G. de Lapradelle, whose collection of international 
arbitrations is well known. Bonfils, of the University 
of Toulouse, is the author of a treatise entitled " Manuel 
de droit international pubhc,'' which is regarded as the 
standard general authority in French. The ponderous 
treatise of Pradier-Fodere, "Traite de droit interna- 
tional public Europeen et Americain,'' in eight volumes, 
is the most elaborate work of the kind in any language. 
Merignhac of Toulouse is likewise a well-known authori- 
ty, and is the author of a number of works, the most 
notable of which is his "Traite de droit international 
pubHc" in two volumes. Despagnet is another highly 
respected writer in this field, and the author of many 
publications, his principal contribution being a work 
entitled "Cours de droit international public." An im- 
portant contribution on international law as applied to 
maritime warfare is de Boeck^s "De la propriete privee 
ennemie sous pavilion ennemi"; while Lemonon and 
Dupuis have both made substantial contributions to the 
literature dealing with the work of the two Hague con- 
ferences. Among other important French writers in this 
field may be mentioned the older authorities, Haute- 
FEUiLLE, PiSTOYE, Du Verdy, Rouard de Card, and 
the more recent authors, Funck-Brentano, Sorel, 
RoLLAND, Vallery, Politis, Desjardins, Duplessix, 
Basdevant, Imbart de la Tour, Guelle, Ferand- 
GiRAUD, Fauchille (the learned editor of the "Revue 
Generale de Droit international public"), and Weiss, 
the author of a monumental work in four volumes 
entitled ** Droit international prive." 



POLITICAL SCIENCE 



POLITICAL SCIENCE 285 

The large number of distinguished French scholars in 
this field, the richness of the literature, and the excep- 
tional library facihties, especially in Paris, easily make 
the University of Paris the most important center of the 
world for the study of international law. 

In the field of Colonial Administration and Legislation, 
French interest and scholarship are scarcely less pre- 
eminent, and the hterature is extensive. In this field 
GiRAULT and Larcher are the two leading authorities. 
It may be mentioned in this connection that there is a 
special school at Paris for the training of young men for 
careers in the colonial service. At Bordeaux there is a 
Colonial Institute; at Aix-Marseille, a School of Colonial 
Medicine and Pharmacy; at Nancy, a Colonial Institute. 

In Legal History, the researches of the French have 
been especially noteworthy, and the literature in this 
field is extensive in quantity and unexcelled in quality. 
Among the more recent French scholars who have made 
notable contributions along this line may be mentioned 

FUSTEL DE COULANGES, LUCHAIRE, GlASSON, DaRESTE, 

Planiol, Chenon, Garraud, and Lefebvre. Naturally 
the French have given much attention to the study of 
Roman law, as is testified by the treatises of Ortolan, 
GiRARD, GiDE, Gerardin, Giraud, Cuq, Appleton, 
May, Audibert, Huvelin, and others. On the theory 
and philosophy of law there are likewise numerous treatises 
of a scholarly character, among which may be mentioned 
the writings of Larnaude, Geny, Duguit, Laivibert, 
MiCHOUD, Hauriou, Saleilles, and Demogue. The 
most comprehensive treatise on the history of political 
theory in any language is Janet's "Histoire de la science 
politique dans ses rapports avec la morale'' (2 vols.), a 
work which not only bears the ear-marks of erudition 
but is written in a style at once clear and fascinating. 



286 POLITICAL SCIENCE 

In Economic Science, French contributions to economic 
theory have been numerous, and from the outset have 
exerted an important influence upon the development of 
economic thought. The term "poKtical economy'' 
seems to have been first used as a title for a general treatise 
by Antoine de Montchretien in his volume "Traite 
de rficonomie Politique," published in 1615. His book 
was a formal exposition of the principles of mercantilism, 
which probably received a wider acceptation and applica- 
tion as a State policy in France under Colbert than in any 
other country. On account of the extremes to which 
mercantilism was carried and the evils that arose there- 
from, the first vigorous protest against mercantilism 
was voiced in France. Boisguillebert, Marshal 
Vauban, and Fenelon contributed to that protest. 
However, it was not until about the middle of the 
eighteenth century that reaction against mercantilism 
became an open protest against the economic policies of 
the State. The leaders in this movement were the 
founders of the Physiocratic School of economic thought. 

From the viewpoint of economic theory, Francois 
QuESNAY was the chief figure in this school. His most 
imporant writings were an article "Fermiers," one on 
"Grains," "Tableau economique," "Maximes generales 
du gouvernement economique d'un royaume agricole," 
and "Droit Naturel." Among other representatives of 
this school the names of Gournay and Turcot should 
be mentioned. Turgot, while keeping himself formally 
distinct from the physiocrats, was in essential agreement 
with their main doctrines, and as statesman gave prac- 
tical application to their theories. In fact, the achieve- 
ments of the French Revolution were to a large extent 
the realization of the reforms advocated by the physio- 
cratic school. , In addition, their contributions had an 
immediate and a profound influence on the economic 



POLITICAL SCIENCE 287 

thinking of the last half of the eighteenth century. 
Through the writings of Smith and Ricardo, who were 
both clearly indebted to them, physiocratic influence 
was carried over into the economic thought of the nine- 
teenth century. 

But with the close of the eighteenth century, with 
the exception of J. B. Say, France neither produced 
any important economic works, nor possessed a school 
of economists, until about 1845, although Utopian 
Socialism flourished in this period. 

The rationalism of the eighteenth century led in 
scientific circles to an unobtrusive but insistent realism, 
to a distrust of large abstractions, and to a search for 
objective facts. In the social sciences, this temper re- 
sulted in the subordination of the theory of distribu- 
tion to the concrete problems of State administration and 
local amelioration. Sismondi and Saint-Simon are 
more characteristic of the temper of French thought than 
J. B. Say and Frederic Bastiat, and, as might be sup- 
posed, the positive contribution of France in the social 
sciences is in sociology rather than in economics. Al- 
though the liberal views of the eighteenth century have 
maintained a strong hold on French opinion, there has 
been a skepticism and a tendency to reaction, which 
appeared in its extreme forms in the Utopian com- 
munism of Saint-Simon and Fourier and in the socialism 
of Louis Blanc and Proiidhon. This reaction against 
the mechanistic theories was not without its influence 
upon John Stuart Mill. 

The passion of the reahst for facts appears notably in 
Le Play's monographs of families, in the historical work 
of Levasseur, and in the highly diversified work of P. 
Leroy-Beaitlieu. 

About the middle of the century, there was a revival of 
"classical'' economic thought, which was associated with 



288 POLITICAL SCIENCE 

the writings of Donoyer and Bastiat. English influence 
was clearly uppermost at this time ; and after the tariff 
barriers between England and France had been largely 
removed in i860, the influence of the Manchester School 
became even more pronounced. The commercial agree- 
ment just alluded to was largely the work of the eminent 
French statesman and economist, Chevalier, and the 
EngHsh free-trader Cobden. 

During the last quarter of the nineteenth century, 
two factors had an important bearing upon the character 
of French economic thought. The host of practical 
questions resulting from the Franco-Prussian War 
stimulated research in the direction of solutions for 
these pressing problems. Beginning in 1878, this ten- 
dency received additional momentum by the institution 
of economic courses in the law faculties of various French 
Universities, in which the instruction was given a more 
practical turn, greater emphasis being placed upon the 
legal and administrative phases of these problems. 

The teaching of economics is profoundly influenced by 
this realistic tendency. Economics is studied either as 
preparation for administrative work or in connection with 
engineering and business. It is taught in nearly all the 
technical schools, and some subjects that receive general 
attention here appear only in the curricula of the tech- 
nical schools. The economic problems of railroads, for 
instance, are treated at the ficole des Ponts et Chaus- 
sees. Opportunities for advanced study are most con- 
siderable at Paris. The larger choice of courses is offered 
by the Law School and the Ecole Libre des Sciences 
Politiques, the latter a private institution not subject 
to the authority of the Minister of Public Instruction. 
Some work in economics is done at the ficole Pratique 
des Hautes fitudes, and there are public lectures at the 
College de France. At the Law School and at the ficole 



POLITICAL SCIENCE 289 

Libre, the study of economics is pursued with special 
reference to meeting the examination requirements for the 
higher branches of the administration. The Ecole 
Libre also offers a course for prospective business men. 
In the domain of industrial legislation, the greatest 
activity of studies is found, as appears not only from the 
treatises of Pic, Jay, Capitant, Cabouat, and Bellour, 
but from the numerous courses of instruction offered in 
nearly every university. 

Reference must here be made to the remarkably 
good work of French writers on cost analysis, in which 
they are decidedly in advance of the United States, and 
perhaps of other countries. Much of the good practical 
work which is being done in the application of statistics 
to business in America at the present day is a tardy 
reflection of the method of cost analysis employed in 
France. This work has been so fruitful that it may be 
regarded as one of the parts of economics where our 
students have most to learn from France. 

There is much writing on economic theory, as each 
professor usually publishes his course-lectures. Colson 
has published one of the most extensive works, "Cours 
d'economie politique" (1901-07), and issues an annual 
supplement. The work of Gide is well known through 
the translation so frequently used in our colleges. The 
most original work on economic theory is that of Landry, 
"L'interet du capital" (1904). The most distinguished 
economists of the generation have been Paul Leroy- 
Beatjlieu and the late fimile Levasseur. The works 
of Leroy-Beaulieu cover a wide range: ^^L 'adminis- 
tration locale en France et en Angle terre" (1872); 
"L'etat moderne et ses fonctions" (1890); "Le coUec- 
tivisme" (1894, 1909); "De la colonisation chez les 
peuples modernes" (1874-1908); "Essai sur la reparti- 
tion des richesses" (1883); ^^La question ouvriere au 



290 POLITICAL SCIENCE 

xix^ siecle" (1872); '^Traite theorique et pratique 
d'economie politique" (1896); "La question de la popula- 
tion" (1913); and "Traite de la science des finances" 
(2 vols., 1879-1912). Levasseur occupies the first 
place in economic history with scholarly general treatises : 
"Histoire des classes ouvrieres et de I'industrie en France 
avant 1789" (1859-1901); "Histoire des classes ouvrieres 
. de 1789 a 1870" (1867-1904); ''La population 
fran^aise" (1889-92); "La France et ses colonies" (1890); 
"Histoire du commerce de la France" (1911-12); in 
addition to these general treatises he has also published 
a number of minor works on economics and geography. 
GiDE has written upon social problems: "La Coopera- 
tion" (1900); "Les societes cooperatives de consomma- 
tion" (1904); "Economie sociale, institutions de progres 
social au debut du xx^ siecle" ( 1907-19 12). 

In Finance, there are many notable names. Jeze has 
confined himself largely to systematic treatises, "Cours 
elementaire de science des finances" (1904-1912); and 
* ' Traite de science des finances " ( 1 9 1 o) . Caillaux in the 
field of taxation has written "L'impot sur le revenu" 
(1910); and "Les impots en France" (1896-1904). Rene 
Stourm and Marcel Marion have given special attention 
to financial history, though both have published in other 
fields. CoLSON is an authority of note upon railroads. 
His book "Transports et tarifs" (1906) is well known, 
and his "Abrege de la legislation des chemins de fer et 
tramways" is of importance. With Marlio, one of the 
younger men, Colson presented a notable paper to the 
International Congress on railroads in 1910. Renaud 
has written much on contemporary labor problems, and, 
in addition, has published a study in Florentine history, 
("Histoire du travail a Florence," 1913.") He is also 
editing the "Histoire universelle du travail," to which 



POLITICAL SCIENCE 291 

he has contributed. Raphael-Georges Levy, of the 
Institute, is well known in France for his many contribu- 
tions on economics and financial questions, published 
mainly in the "Revue des deux Mondes." 

Institutions and Societies. The activity of French 
scholars in the several fields with which this chapter deals 
has by no means been confined to teaching and writing. 
Through the agency of learned societies they have also 
done much to stimulate popular interest in the study of 
political, legal, economic, and penal science, and to 
provide a body of scientific literature of great value to 
students. Thus the Societe de Legislation Comparee, 
founded in 1870, collects, annotates, and publishes in an 
'^Annuaire,'' of which 45 volumes have appeared, the 
principal laws of different countries. The society holds 
meetings from time to time at which important legis- 
lative reforms and questions of public policy are dis- 
cussed by experts. The proceedings are pubHshed in a 
monthly bulletin, of which 45 volumes have appeared. 
At one of the meetings, in 1902, for example, the question 
of the power of the courts to declare acts of the legislature 
null and void on the ground of unconstitutionaHty was 
discussed by a number of the leading jurists of France, 
and the published proceedings make one of the most 
valuable contributions to the literature of the subject 
to be found in any foreign language. In cooperation 
with the recently formed Societe d'fitudes Legislatives, 
which likewise publishes a bulletin, it has organized a 
congress of comparative law, whose purpose is to study 
the public and private institutions of foreign countries. 

A somewhat similar body is the Comite de Legislation 
fitrangere of the Ministry of Justice, which translates 
and pubhshes the latest codes of the more important 
countries. 



292 POLITICAL SCIENCE 

The Academy of Moral and Political Sciences, one of 
the five academies of the Institute of France, is a body 
composed of a small select group of the most distin- 
guished scholars, which devotes itself to the study of 
questions of legal and political science and which offers 
prizes for noteworthy productions. The proceedings of 
the Academy are published, and constitute in the aggre- 
gate a valuable body of literature on the subject with 
which they deal. 

Still another learned society which may be mentioned 
in this connection is the Societe generale des Prisons. 
It is composed mainly of professors of criminal law, crimin- 
ology, and penology, magistrates, lawyers, and adminis- 
trators of prisons, and is devoted to the study of ques- 
tions of criminal law, penology, and the administration 
of penal institutions. The Society publishes a valuable 
monthly periodical, the "Revue penitentiaire et de droit 
penal," of which 40 volumes have appeared. 

The Institut de Droit International, although its 
membership is not limited to Frenchmen, was neverthe- 
less founded largely through the initiative of French 
scholars; they constitute a large and influential part of 
its membership and its proceedings are published in the 
French language. The Institute holds annual sessions 
at different places in Europe and publishes an " Annuaire" 
(26 volumes to date) containing a report of its proceed- 
ings, together with the texts, papers, reports, drafts of 
projects, etc. The Institute has framed proposed codes 
of international law, dealing with such matters as aerial 
navigation, maritime war, land warfare, etc.; on account 
of the distinguished reputations of the members, the 
views of the Institute have exerted a marked influence 
on the recent development of international law. 

In addition to the publications of learned societies may 
be mentioned certain publications of the universities. 




POLITICAL SCIENCE 



POLITICAL SCIENCE 293 

Notable are the "Annales de rUniversite de Lyon," 
which were started in 1891 and of which 100 volumes 
have already appeared. The first 40 volumes contain 
publications dealing with the sciences in general; the 
others fall into two groups: first, those which deal with 
the medical sciences; and, second, those which deal with 
law and letters. This collection is the most extensive 
and valuable of university pubHcations in France, em- 
bracing as it does the results of original work and research. 
The University of Rennes has published, since 1885, the 
"Annales de Bretagne," and since 1906 a series entitled 
"Les travaux juridiques et economiques." Other uni- 
versity publications in France of a serial character are: 
the '^Annales de TUniversite de Grenoble," which have 
appeared regularly since 1890; the "Revue bourgui- 
gnonne," which has been published by the University of 
Dijon since 1891; the "Annales des Facultes de droit 
et des lettres d'Aix" since 1905; and the "Travaux de la 
conference de droit penal" of the Faculty of Law of the 
University of Paris, since 1910. 

Periodicals. The interest and activities of the French 
in the legal, political, and economic sciences are still 
further reflected in the numerous reviews and periodicals 
which they pubHsh. In addition to those already men- 
tioned, and not enumerating those devoted to private law, 
the best known are : the "Journal de Droit International 
Prive," which has appeared regularly since 1874, and has 
since its foundation been edited by the well-known 
scholar, Edouard Clunet; the "Revue Generale du 
Droit International Public," now in its twenty- third 
year, edited by Fauchille; the "Revue de Droit Pubhc 
et de la Science Politique," edited by Jeze, now in its 
thirty- third volume; the "Revue de Science et de Legis- 
lation financieres," also edited by Jeze; the "Revue 



294 POLITICAL SCIENCE 

Generale de Droit, de Legislation et de Jurisprudence," 
founded in 1877; the "Revue des Sciences politiques" 
(formerly known as the "Annales des sciences poli- 
tiques"), published by the Ecole des Sciences PoHtiques 
(33 vols.); the "Revue Politique et Parlementaire," 
•founded in 1895, and edited by Faure (87 vols.); the 
"Revue de Droit Internationale Prive et de Droit Penal 
International," founded in 1905; "Questions pratiques 
de Legislation ouvriere et d'Economie sociale"; the 
"Revue Generale d' Administration" (38 vols.); the 
"Revue Internationale du Droit Maritime" (29 vols.); 
the "Revue Communale" (24 vols.); the "Revue d'His- 
toire Diplomatique" (27 vols.); and the "Archives 
Diplomatiques " (129 vols.) All of these are scientific 
publications containing articles by experts, chroniques, 
book reviews, texts of important documents, and the 
like. 

For the convenience of students, teachers, and others, 
there is provided a great variety of collections of laws, 
decisions of judicial and administrative courts, bulletins, 
"annuaires," "repertoires," " dictionnaires," etc. Among 
them may be mentioned the great Collection of Duvergier 
in 115 volumes, containing the texts of all the laws, 
decrees, ordinances, etc., issued by the French govern- 
ment since 1788; the annals of the Senate and Chamber of 
Deputies, embracing now more than 450 volumes; the 
"Annuaire" of French legislation in some 40 volumes; 
the "Annuaire" of foreign legislation, about 45 volumes; 
a collection of the principal codes of the world, nearly 
30 volumes; Sirey^s collection of the laws and "arretes," 
about 115 volumes; Dalloz's "Recueil" of laws and 
decisions, 70 volumes; the decisions of the Council of 
State since 1798, over 240 volumes; Dalloz's "Juris- 
prudence Generale" (1887-1897), 69 volumes, supplement 
(1887-1897), 19 volumes; Riviere and Weiss's "Pandectes 



POLITICAL SCIENCE 295 

frangaises/' 6;^ volumes; Bequet^s "Repertoire de Droit 
Administratif," over 30 volumes; and various others. 

Courses of Instruction. Instruction in political 
science, public law, international law, and economics 
in the French universities is invariably given in the 
Faculty of Law, thus indicating a closer connection be- 
tween those fields and that of law than generally exists 
in American universities. Of the sixteen universities, 
all (except those of Besangon and Clermont-Ferrand) 
maintain such faculties, and therefore offer instruction 
in the above mentioned subjects. All of the law faculties 
grant certificates of capacity and the degree of Licence 
en Droit, and those of Paris, Dijon, Grenoble, Lille, 
Lyon, and Nancy are empowered to grant the degree of 
Doctor of Law. The latter degree is of two kinds, de- 
pending on the nature of the course pursued by the 
candidate: first, the doctorate in the juridical sciences, 
and, second, the doctorate in the political and economic 
sciences. Candidates for the doctor's degree must have 
taken their Licence in law from a French university or 
have graduated from an acceptable foreign university. 

Paris. For the study of the subjects with which this 
chapter deals, the University of Paris, of course, ranks 
first. Its Faculty of Law numbers between forty and 
fifty professors, agreges, and charges. It offers a large 
and varied number of courses, in civil, commercial, and 
criminal law, Roman law, legal history, constitutional, 
administrative, and international law (both public and 
private), political economy, public finance, statistics, 
industrial and social legislation, comparative legislation 
and jurisprudence, diplomatic law and history, colonial 
law and administration, etc. Duriiig the year preceding 
the outbreak of the great war in 1914, more than 8000 
students — about one half the total registration of the 



296 POLITICAL SCIENCE 

university — ^were enrolled in the Faculty of Law. Viewed, 
therefore, from the number of students enrolled, the 
great variety of courses offered, and the number of dis- 
tinguished professors, the Law Faculty of Paris leads 
that of all other universities. It may be justly regarded 
as the most important center of the world for the study 
of public law, and poHtical science. Among the most 
distinguished scholars who compose the Faculty of Law 
may be mentioned Berthelemy and Jacquelin in ad- 
ministrative law; Barthelemy in constitutional and ad- 
ministrative law; Jeze in administrative law and public 
finance; Larnaude in constitutional law; Flach in com- 
parative legislation; Thaller and Lyon-Caen in com- 
mercial and maritime law; Renault, Lapradelle, 
PiLLET, and PiEDELiEVRE in international public law; 
Weiss in international private law; Fournier and 
Lefebvre in legal history; Gide and Faure in Econom- 
ics; not to mention the names of Girard, Capitant, 
CuQ, GARgoN, Planiol, Le Poittevln, Tissier, and others, 
whose subjects fall more distinctly in the field of private 
law. 

Closely connected with the University of Paris is the 
ancient College de France, founded in 1530, which now 
maintains forty-five chairs, among the occupants of 
which may be mentioned Paul Leroy-Beaulieu in 
economics and Flach in comparative legal history. 

The library facilities for the study of pohtical science, 
public law, and economics in Paris are unsurpassed. The 
library of the Faculty of Law contains 80,000 volumes, 
and 352 seats are provided in the reading room for 
students. The College de France has a library of 10,000 
volumes reserved for the use of professors, besides eleven 
special libraries. There are also many special but ex- 
tensive collections in the city of Paris which are available 
to students. Among these may be mentioned the library 



POLITICAL SCIENCE 297 

of the Court of Cassation, containing 40,000 volumes; 
of the Court of Appeal, 13,000 volumes; of the Council 
of State, 36,000 volumes; of the Chamber of Deputies, 
250,000 volumes; of the Municipal Council in the Hotel 
de Ville, 30,000 volumes; of the Court of Accounts, 25,000 
volumes; of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 80,000 
volumes, besides the libraries of the other ministries; of 
the Office of Foreign Legislation and International Law, 
60,000 volumes; the historical library of the City of 
Paris, 400,000 volumes; of the office of Legislative and 
Parliamentary Labor, 400,000 documents and reports; 
the library of the Bar at the Palais de Justice, 65,000 
volumes; the library of the Society of Comparative 
Legislation, 18,500 volumes, 7,500 brochures, and 2,000 
periodicals; of the Colonial School, 15,000 volumes; and 
various others. Finally there is the National Library 
containing 3,000,000 volumes and 110,000 manuscripts. 

Other Universities, While Paris, by reason of its 
larger faculties, its greater variety of courses and its 
more extensive library facilities, is the chief center in 
France for the study of poUtical science, pubHc law and 
economics, nevertheless the opportunities and facilities 
offered by some of the provincial universities are im- 
portant and valuable. 

Among the provincial universities, that of Lyon is the 
largest. The Law Faculty embraces about 20 professors 
and instructors; among the most distinguished names 
being those of Garraud in criminal law, Paul Pic in 
international law and industrial legislation, and Appleton 
in administrative law. A large number of courses in 
public law, legal history, pohtical economy, industrial 
legislation, and public finance are offered, and the enroll- 
ment of students exceeds in numbers that of any other 
French university outside of Paris. The university has 



298 POLITICAL SCIENCE 

a collection of 300,000 volumes, of which 140,000 are in 
the law library. It also has 132,000 theses and bro- 
chures, and receives 1,300 periodicals. 

A smaller French university which enjoys a high repu- 
tation as a center for the study of political science is that 
of Dijon, It has a law faculty of about 20 professors 
and agreges, among the best known of whom, perhaps, 
are Desserteaux, Delpech, Deslandres, and Gaude- 
MET. It is one of the favorite universities outside Paris 
for foreign students, and it maintains a summer school 
which is attended by many students from abroad. 

The University of GrenoUe, charmingly situated in the 
Alps region, conducts, like Dijon, a summer school and 
makes a special appeal to foreign students. During the 
year 191 2-13 over 1,500 students from foreign countries 
were registered in this university. The Law Faculty, 
composed of 16 professors and other members, is one of 
the ablest of the provincial universities, among its most 
distinguished professors being Michoud in administra- 
tive law, Beudant in constitutional law, Caillemer in 
legal history, and Basdevant in international law. All 
have made notable contributions to the literature of their 
respective subjects and rank among the leading French 
scholars in their fields. The Law Faculty offers a great 
variety of courses, and the University possesses a large 
and well-equipped library. 

The University of Lille also has a special strength in 
political science. The literary activity of its Faculty 
has been notable; and it numbers such well known 
scholars as Vallas, Jacqxjey, Guernier, Levy-Ull- 
MANN, Demogue, Schatz, and Morel. 

A smaller and less well-known university, but possess- 
ing an able law faculty, is that of Montpellier in Southern 
France. Among its leading scholars are Bremond in ad- 
ministrative law, Charmont in philosophy of law. 




POLITICAL SCIENCE 



POLITICAL SCIENCE 299 

Laborde in criminal law, Dubois in constitutional law, 
Valery in international private law, and Moye in inter- 
national public law. It offers courses in the usual sub- 
jects taught in French law faculties. 

The University of Nancy, likewise one of the smaller 
institutions, possesses an able law faculty of 17 profes- 
sors and agreges, including such well-known scholars as 
Geny in civil law, Michon in legal history, Rolland in 
administrative law, Gavet in public law, and Simonet 
in constitutional law. The University has a library of 
nearly 200,000 volumes; and the city library contains 
about 145,000 volumes, including the publications of 
over 400 learned societies and 263 reviews and peri- 
odicals. 

One of the oldest and best known provincial universi- 
ties is that of Poitiers, which has an able law faculty and 
a library of 100,000 volumes and 180,000 theses and 
brochures. The University of Rennes, situated in the 
picturesque country of Brittany, maintains a summer 
school and, like Dijon and Grenoble, makes a special 
appeal to foreign students. It has a law faculty of 
about 20 members, several of whom enjoy distinguished 
reputations. The university library contains 150,000 
volumes and over 67,000 brochures. It is unique in 
possessing a collection of the British and Foreign state 
papers of 560 volumes. 

The Universities of Bordeaux and of Toulouse, to 
mention only two others, have strong law faculties, and 
offer excellent facilities for the study of political science 
and public law. Among the professors of Bordeaux, the 
best known to American scholars is Leon Duguit, the 
most eminent of the living French authorities in the 
fields of constitutional law and political science. At 
Toulouse, perhaps the best known to us are Rouard 
DE Card, in international private law, Merignhac, in 



300 POLITICAL SCIENCE 

international public law, Hauriou, in administrative law, 
Thomas and Declareuil, in legal history, and Cezar- 
Bru, in economic legislation. 

Non-university Instruction. Aside from the Univer- 
sities, there are in France a number of private institutions 
which make a specialty of instruction in the political and 
economic sciences. The more important of these are of 
course in Paris, and include the Ecole Libre des Sciences 
Politiques; the Ecole des Hautes Etudes Sociales; the 
College Libre des Sciences Politiques; and the Ecole de 
Legislation professionelle. The University of Lyon also 
maintains an Institut des Sciences Economiques et 
Politiques; there are also Instituts Coloniaux at Bordeaux 
and Nancy for training young men for the colonial 
service. Finally, there is an Ecole des Hautes Etudes 
Commerciales at Paris and Institutes for the study of 
commerce at Paris, Grenoble, and Nancy. 

Of the above mentioned schools the best known is the 
Ecole Libre des Sciences Politiques at Paris. It was 
founded by the late Emile Boutmy, who was its first 
Director. It is now in its forty-fifth year, and is under 
the direction of M. Eichthal of the Institute. It offers a 
great variety of courses in the administrative sciences, 
public finance, political and social economy, international, 
public and private law and diplomacy, and diplomatic 
history. Students and auditors are admitted to the 
lectures without examination, and there is no age require- 
ment for attendance. The course normally runs through 
three years, and a diploma is granted upon the comple- 
tion of the course. The corps of instruction is composed 
of a large number of distinguished scholars of Paris, 
including many of the professors of the University of 
Paris, members of the Council of State, members of 
Parliament, government officials, etc. The school issues 



POLITICAL SCIENCE 301 

a valuable bi-monthly publication, the "Revue des 
Sciences Politiques/' which contains articles mainly by 
members of the faculty. It possesses a library of 
about 25,000 volumes and receives some 160 French and 
foreign reviews and periodicals. The school is very popu- 
lar and is attended by a large number of students, in- 
cluding Americans and other foreigners preparing for 
the diplomatic service. 



Psychology 



PSYCHOLOGY' 

There is a French Psychology as there is an Enghsh 
and a German Psychology. It does not have the distinct- 
ly introspective nor the experimental-psycho-physical 
character that are predominant features of the English 
and the German psychology. Positivism gave rise to 
Taine (i 8 28-1 893), whose struggle against the spiritual- 
istic interpretation of psychologic phenomena prepared 
the way in France for our present-day ideas regarding 
the relation of genius to insanity and of double person- 
ality and allied phenomena to the hysterical constitution. 
Investigation of these relations was greatly advanced 
by the work of Charcot (1825-1895), in his clinic for 
nervous and mental diseases at the Salpetriere (1880), 
which stimulated the scientific imagination of French 
students of psychology, and so opened the way for a 
series of brilliant researches, within recent years, into the 
nature of certain abnormal mental phenomena. These 
studies appear to be of fundamental importance. Under 
controlled conditions they penetrate beyond the data of 
introspection, and they have already developed our 
concept of the Unconscious as a residuum of experiences, 
intelligent in the sense of being adaptable, and hence 
as supplying the motives of behavior, whether normal 
or abnormal. 

The French psychologists, too, have developed the 
social aspects of their science. The disciples of Comte 
had been busy at finding the place of social science in a 

^ [Drafting Committee: J. R. Angell, University of Chicago; 
R. H. Gault, Northwestern University. — Ed.] 

305 



3o6 PSYCHOLOGY 

hierarchy of sciences. Those of spencer had been 
occupied with tracing supposed analogies between biol- 
ogical organisms and society, which was assumed to be 
an organism also. Gabriel Tarde (i 843-1 904), however, 
who was professor of Modern Philosophy at the College 
de France from 1900 until his death, was the genius who 
directed the current of thought away from these purely 
academic ways, and drew attention to the analysis and 
description of the nature and combinations of certain 
distinct social phenomena. First were his studies of 
imitation as a social fact, which appeared in the "Revue 
philosophique" between 1882 and 1884, and eventually 
were brought together in a volume, "Les Lois de Fimita- 
tion,'^ in 1890; this work went into its second edition in 
1895. It marks an epoch in the history of psychology, 
for it opened the eyes of students to the possibility of 
successful application of psychological method to the 
study of the behavior of groups. "La Philosophic 
penale" appeared in 1891; and later, among the products 
of Tarde's work in the College de France, came his 
"Etudes penales et sociales" and "Psychologic econo- 
mique.'' 

In the field of general psychology, French investigators 
stand out less prominently, but here also progress has 
been made, and the work of Th. Ribot (i 839-1 903) is a 
distinguished record. He became professor of Experi- 
mental Psychology in the College de France in 1885. 
In 1888 he set forth a "motor theory'^ of attention, which 
was later more fully developed by the American James 
Mark Baldwin in "Mental Development in the Child 
and the Race: Methods and Processes,'' (1906), and by 
Ribot himself in "La Psychologic des Sentiments," 
(1897), in which the author transformed the feelings 
into phenomena of the central nervous system accom- 
panying bodily processes. Among other works by 




PSYCHOLOGY 



PSYCHOLOGY 307 

Ribot which have set the course for present day investi- 
gations in France are the following: "L^Heredite psycho- 
logique" (1882) ;''Les Maladies de la volonte" (1883; 14th 
ed., 1899); "Les Maladies de la personnalite'' (1885; 8th 
ed., 1899); "LaPsychologie de Tattention'' (1889). 

France is the source of a movement which, in American 
departments of Psychology, is occupying more attention 
than any other single object: the invention and applica- 
tion of psychological tests. Alfred Binet (1857-1911), 
in collaboration with Thomas Simon (1873-), originated 
the Binet Tests. Binet established the first psycho- 
logical laboratory in France at the Sorbonne in 1889, and 
in 1895 he began the publication of "L'Annee psycho- 
logique," in which his most important works appear. 

Taking the Psychological Review Indices for 191 3 and 
1 914, about one-sixth of all the world's titles on Abnormal 
Psychology are in the French language by French authors. 
This will suggest the activity of contemporary work in 
psychology in France. 

Instruction. Paris, All of the sixteen universities in 
France offer inducements to graduate students in psych- 
ology. 

Naturally the University of Paris presents the widest 
range of opportunities, both directly through the uni- 
versity itself and indirectly through numerous auxiliary 
institutions in the neighborhood. Among these, one must 
mention first of all, from the point of view of the student 
of psychology, the College de France. Indeed one would 
hardly go to Paris for research in psychology without 
taking advantage of this institution of learning. 

At the University of Paris are Delbos (Philosophy and 
Psychology), Georges Dumas (Experimental Psychology), 
Laignel-Lavastine (whose studies of Aphasia and of 
Dementia in syphilitic cases are well known), and 



3o8 PSYCHOLOGY 

Revault d'Allones (whose name is known to students 
of general Psychology for his work on "Attention" and 
"Les troubles de Tintelligence"). At the clinic for mental 
diseases at the Salpetriere are J. Voisin, J. Seglas, whose 
investigations relate chiefly to Hallucinations, and 
P. Chaslin. 

At the College de France is Pierre Janet (Experimental 
Psychology), a giant among scientists, who of contem- 
porary French psychologists is by far the best known to 
American students. He first demonstrated subconscious 
perception of sensory stimulations applied to anaesthetic 
tactile and visual areas; and, more fully than any other 
investigator, he has analyzed the various forms of amnesia. 
In his " L ' Automatisme psychologique " (1889) ^.nd 
various recent publications in the "Journal de Psych- 
ologie normale et pathologique " and other periodicals, 
he has, on experimental grounds, developed the theory 
of hysteria in its numerous manifestations, such as 
double personality, automatic writing, phobias, etc., as 
phenomena of dissociated processes independent of per- 
sonal consciousness. These processes he conceives as 
expressions of residua of early experiences; systematized 
or organized residua which do not directly affect con- 
sciousness, but which are, nevertheless, intelligent, in 
the sense that, in the conditions of experiment, they lead 
to suitable adaptations of behavior. It is thus that the 
scientific imagination of Janet and his collaborators 
carries us into an experimental psychology that reaches 
back of the data of the introspection of normal conscious- 
ness. 

At the Sorbonne, also, are laboratories of Physiological 
Psychology, Philippe, Director; of Physiology of Sensa- 
tion, Ch. Henry, Director; Experimental Psychology, 
at the Asylum of Villejuif, Edouard Toulouse, Director; 
of Pathological Psychology, Marie, Director. There is 




PSYCHOLOGY 



PSYCHOLOGY 309 

also the Laboratory of Anthropology under the direction 
of Manouvrier and Papillault. 

The institutions for research in the city of Paris offer 
almost unlimited opportunity to the student who is 
interested in physiological psychology and mental path- 
ology. Moreover, the French universities, almost with- 
out exception, and especially the University of Paris 
and the College de France, are rich in opportunities for 
the student whose interest is in the social aspects of 
Psychology, particularly in as far as this subject leads 
into the study of Ethnography, Anthropology, and 
Antiquities. Almost every university has its museum or 
society devoted to one or all of these subjects. 

Other Universities. While the great contributions to 
Psychology by French scholars have been made in the 
fields mentioned above, it is not to be inferred that in 
other regions they are inactive. Noteworthy work has 
recently been done by R. Bourbon at Rennes, for ex- 
ample, in the perception of movements. Studies of atten- 
tion have been made in the laboratory at Montpellier 
in which the subjects were young children, and in the 
same university Foucault has lately contributed to 
certain aspects of the psychology of learning. 

On the whole it can be said that, in the provincial 
universities outside of Paris, where the great hospitals 
are lacking, the problems recently under investigation 
are those of the older laboratory type which, to distin- 
guish them from questions of abnormal and social psy- 
chology, may be termed psycho-physical. 



Religion 



Religion 



The chief contribution of France to the modem study 
of religion is in the field of the history of religions, where 
Paris alone now offers an organized body of instruc- 
tion and where the work of French scholars has always 
been preeminent. For example, the scientific study of 
the Avesta was first seriously attempted by Eugene 
BuRNOUF (i 801-185 2), who laid the foundations of 
our present knowledge of Zoroastrianism (''Zenda vesta,'' 
Paris, 1829-1843; "Commentaire sur le Yagna,'' Paris, 
1833), following up the explorations of that forerunner 
of modem scholarship, Anquetil Duperron. Burnoue 
also did pioneering work of the first importance in the 
study of Indian Buddhism ('^Introduction a Fhistoire 
du Buddhisme Indien,'' Paris, 1844; ''Lotus de la bonne 
loi," Paris, 1852), and developed the study of Hin- 
duism ("Bhagavata Purana," vols. 1-3, Paris, 1840- 

1849). 

The succession has been notably carried on by Abel 
Bergaigne, ( 1 838-1 888), whose revolutionary study of 
the Veda destroyed completely the earHer view of the 
extreme simpHcity and antiquity of both Hterature and 
religion ("La religion vedique d'apres les hymnes du 
Rig- Veda,'' 3 vols., Paris, 1878-1883); and by James 
Darmesteter, with his studies and translation of the 
Avesta. The entire field of Indian reUgion has been cov- 
ered by the erudition of Auguste Barth ("Quarante ans 
d'Indianisme," 4 vols., Paris, 191 4). 

1 [Drafting Committee: G. B. Foster, University of Chicago; 
N. B. Nash, Episcopal Theological School, Cambridge. — Ed.] 

313 



314 RELIGION 

As with all other branches of Egyptology, the study of 
Egyptian religion owes much to the great name of Gaston 
Maspero (1846-1916), whose scattered essays have been 
collected under the title: **£tudes de mythologie et 
d'archeologie egyptiennes'' (6 vols., Paris, 1893-), and 
constitute the most important single contribution to 
the subject. 

Of far different character from all these scholars, but 
of very great significance for the study of religion, is the 
genius of Ernest Renan (1823-1892). His "Histoire 
du peuple d'lsrael'' (5 vols., Paris, 1887-1894), and 
his far more important "Histoire des origines du Chris t- 
ianisme" (7 vols., Paris, 1863-1882), Represent, as does the 
work of no other man, the reaction of the modern Occi- 
dental mind upon its inherited religion, and their contem- 
porary significance may have somewhat overshadowed 
their undeniably great historical value. The "Vie de 
Jesus" (1863; subsequently printed as vol. i of the "His- 
toire des origines"), though marred, from the standpoint 
of present-day taste, by excessive sentimentality, and 
from that of contemporary scholarship by excessive reliance 
on the Fourth Gospel, remains a classic. 

The study of religion acquired academic standing in 
France in 1880, when Albert Reville (1826-1906) 
was appointed to the new chair of the history of religions 
at the College de France. This recognition, together 
with the foundation in the same year of the "Revue de 
rhistoire des religions," still the chief periodical in its 
field and one of the very best in any field, gave great 
stimulus to the historical study of religion. Reville him- 
self contributed much to this study ("Histoire des reli- 
gions," 3 vols., Paris, 1883-1886; Hibbert Lectures, 1884;' 
"Prolegomenes de Thistoire des religions," Paris, 1880, 
4th ed., 1886; tr. London, 1884; "Jesus de Nazareth," 
2 vols., Paris, 1897). 



RELIGION 315 

The instruction offered by a single chair at the College 
de France was amplified in 1886 by the foundation of the 
Section des Sciences Religieuses at the ficole Pratique des 
Hautes fitudes. Here has been built up undeniably the 
leading school in the world for the historical study of reli- 
gion. 

But before recounting the opportunity for study there, 
mention must be made of the work of fimile Durkheim, 
professor of the science of education and sociology, 
Faculty of Letters, University of Paris. He is the 
leader of the so-called "sociological school,'' the most 
notable recent development in the study of primitive 
religions. In reaction from the excessive reliance upon 
the more or less hypothetical psychology of primitive 
man which marked previous study, Durkheim and his 
followers emphasize the influence of social environment, 
and find in totemism the primitive form of religion 
{Durkheim, "Les formes elementaires de la vie reli- 
gieuse,'' Paris, 191 2, tr. New York, 191 5). Hubert and 
MausSy "Melanges d'histoire des religions," Paris, 1909, is 
a collection of studies reprinted from "L'Annee sociologi- 
que" (Paris, 1896-), which represents this school both 
through its exhaustive review of current literature and 
through important articles by Durkheim and others. Out- 
side the "sociological school," excellent work has also been 
done by French scholars in the field of "primitive" reli- 
gions. 

Instruction at Paris. (I) Ecole Pratique des Hautes 
£tudes: Section des Sciences Religieuses, The work done 
here is admirably illustrated by the seventeen essays 
published under the title of "fitudes de critique et 
d'histoire" by the Section des Sciences Religieuses in 
1896. The subjects of these essays range from Mela- 
nesian taboo to the Christology of Paul of Samosata. 



3i6 RELIGION 

At the present time twenty directors of studies give 
instruction in sixteen departments, of each of which but 
brief mention can be made. The department, director 
or directors, courses in 1914-1915, and important pub- 
lications are given in order. 

ReKgions of unciviHzed peoples, Marcel Mauss. 

Primitive religions of Europe, Henri Hubert: Irish 
mythology; The sculptured monuments of the religion 
of the Gauls. (Mauss and Hubert, both vigorous ad- 
herents of the sociological school, have collaborated in 
other publications beside the one already mentioned; 
see "Essai sur la nature et la fonction du sacrifice," 
**L'Annee sociologique,'' vol. II, 1899, pp. 29-138). 

Religions of pre-Columbian America, Georges Ray- 
naud: Civil and religious history of pre-Columbian 
Central America, Hieratic writings and hieroglyphics 
of the same. 

Religions of the Far East, Marcel Granet: Feasts of 
ancient China ("Revue de Fhistoire des religions," 
LXIX, 1 91 4, No. 2, "Programme d'etudes sur Tancienne 
religion chinoise.") 

Religions of India, — (i) Sylvain Levi ("La science des 
religions et les religions dTnde," Paris, 1892; Asanga: 
Mahayana-sutralamkara, "Expose de la doctrine du 
grand vehicule selon le systeme Yogacara," 2 vols., 
Paris, 1907-1911). (2) Alfred Foucher: The Chan- 
dogya-Upanishad, Buddhist texts. 

Assyro-Babylonian religion, Charles Fossey: Some 
Babylonian and BibHcal myths ("La magie assyrienne," 
Paris, 1902; "Manuel d'assyriologie," vol. I, Paris, 1904). 

Religions of Egypt, EmUe Amelineau: Ancient texts 
relative to the religion and morals of Egypt, Book of the 
Dead, ch. CXLVI ("Essai sur revolution historique et 
philosophique des idees morales dans I'Egypte ancienne,'' 
Paris, 1895; "Prolegomenes a Tetude de la religion 



RELIGION 317 

egyptienne," vol. I, Paris, 1908, vol. II in press; Ame- 
lineau has also made notable contributions to the study 
of Christianity in Egypt: see "Essai sur le gnosticisme 
egyptien/' Paris, 1887; "Litterature chretienne de 
I'Egypte grecque et copte.") 

Religions of Greece and Rome, — (i) Jules Toutain, 
secretary of the Section: Cults of the mountains and 
high places in Greece; Religion and cults in the pro- 
vince of Egypt during the Roman period ("Les cultes 
paiens dans Pempire romain,'' vols. I-II, Paris, 1907- 
191 1 ; in ^^fitudes de mythologie et d'histoire des religions 
antiques,'* Paris, 1909, Toutain appears as a lively 
critic of the sociological school in their devotion to to- 
temism). (2) A. Berthelot. 

Religions of Israel and the western Semites, Maurice 
Vernes, president of the section, and professor in the 
College Libre des sciences sociales: Ancient organization 
of the clergy and cultus in Israel; Ecclesiastes (^^L'his- 
toire des religions, son esprit, sa methode . . ." 
Paris, 1887; "Histoire sociale des religions," vol. I, 
Paris, 191 1). 

Talmudic and Rabbinic Judaism, Israel Levi : Rabbinic 
commentaries on the Psalms; The religious poems of 
Juda Halevi (See "Revue des etudes juives, '' Paris, 1880-, 
passim; Levi has been its editor since its beginning). 

Islam and religions of Arabia, Clement Huart: The 
commentary of Tabari on ch. IV of the Koran; Persian 
mysticism according to the Mesnevi of Jelal-ed-Din 
Rumi C^Le livre de la creation et de I'histoire,'' text 
and translation, 5 vols., Paris, 1899-1916; "Histoire 
des Arabes," 2 vols., Paris, 191 2-1 9 13). 

Byzantine Christianity, Gabriel Millet: Byzantine 
archaeology and religious history (Millet has edited a 
description of "La collection chretienne et byzantine des 
Hautes Etudes,'' Paris, 1903). 



3i8 RELIGION 

Christian literature and church history, — (i) Eugene 
de Faye: Moral and religious ideas and doctrines in the 
3rd century A.D.; Apocryphal acts of Thomas and 
others ("Clement d'Alexandrie," 2d ed., Paris, 1906; 
"fitudes sur les origines des eghses de Page apostoHque,'' 
Paris, 1909). (2) Paul Monceaux: Documents con- 
cerning the soldier-martyrs of the end of the 3rd century; 
Christian epigraphy of southern Gaul ("Histoire lit- 
teraire de FAfrique chretienne,'' 4 vols., Paris, 1901-1912). 

History of doctrines and dogmas, — (i) Frangois 
Picavet: The persistence of mediaeval philosophic and 
theological doctrines in the philosophers and theologians 
of the 17th and i8th centuries; The doctrines and dog- 
mas of Christianity in the councils of the first six cen- 
turies ("Esquisse d'une histoire generale et comparee 
des philosophes medievales," 2d ed., Paris, 1907; 
"Essais sur Thistoire generale et comparee des theologies 
et philosophies medievales,'' Paris, 1913). (2) Alphan- 

DERY. 

History of Canon Law, R. Genestal: Letters of Ivo 
of Chartres; Relations and conflicts between the eccles- 
tical and the secular jurisdiction ("Revue de Thistoire 
des religions," LXIX, 1914, No. i, "L'enseignement 
du droit canonique")- 

History of the Catholic Church since the council of 
Trent, L. Lacroix: History of the Civil Constitution of 
the Clergy. 

Thus, in the Section Religieuse of the ficole des 
Hautes Etudes alone there is such an opportunity for the 
study of religions as can be found in no other city. But 
this splendid faculty is supplemented by several other 
institutions in Paris. 

(II) Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes: Section des 
Sciences Historiques et Philologiques, Egyptian antiqui- 
ties and philology, Alexandre Moret ("Du caractere 



RELIGION 319 

religieux de la royaute pharaonique," Paris, 1902; "Le 
rituel du culte divin joumalier en Egypte," Paris, 1902). 
Ancient history of the Orient, Isidore Levy, History of 
Israel. Semitic languages, Mayer Lambert, the Book 
of Isaiah (" Commentaire sur le Sefer yesira ou livre de la 
creation,'' Paris, 1891). Byzantine and modern Greek, 
Jean Psichari: St. Mark's gospel. 

(III). University of Paris, Faculty of Letters. Antonin 
Debidour, professor of Christianity in Modem Times: 
Religious history of Europe since 1878 ("Histoire des 
rapports de Feglise et de Tetat en France de 1789 a 1870," 
Paris, 1898; "L'egHse catholique et Tetat sous la troisieme 
repubhque," 2 vols., Paris, 1906-1909). History of 
Christianity in Antiquity and the Middle Ages, Charles 
Guignebert, charge de cours: Christian Hfe in the 4th 
century; Problems in the Apostolic Age ("TertuUien," 
Paris, 1902; "Manuel d'histoire ancienne du Christian- 
isme: les origines," Paris, 1906; "Le probleme de 
Jesus," Paris, 1914). History of the rehgion of the 
Hebrews, Adolphe LoDS, charge de cours: The begin- 
nings of Hebrew Kterature; The prophets of Israel and 
their times ("Le livre d'Henoch, fragments grecs . .," 
Paris, 1892; "La croyance a la vie future et le culte des 
morts dans I'antiquite Israelite," Paris, 1906). History 
of Christian ideas and Literature of the i6th-i9th 
Centuries, Louis Rebelliau, charge de cours: Jansenism 
in France ("Bossuet, historien du protestantisme," 
Paris, 1892; "Bossuet," in "Les grands ecrivains 
frangais," Paris, 1900). 

(IV). College de France. Paul Foucart, professor of 
Greek epigraphy and antiquities, ("Des associations 
religieuses chez les grecs," Paris, 1873; three books on the 
Eleusinian mysteries, Paris, 1.895, 1900, 19 14). Alfred 
LoiSY, professor of the history of religions: The epistle 
to the Galatians, The history of sacrifice; the Abbe Loisy 



320 RELIGION 

won fame by his reply to Harnack's "Das Wesen des 
Christentums'' ("L'evangile et Teglise," 3d ed., Paris, 
1904); equally important are his study of the Fourth 
Gospel Q'Le quatrieme evangile," Paris, 1903) and his 
two volumes on the Synoptic gospels ("Les evangiles 
synoptiques,'^ Paris, 1907-1908) ; his five essays published 
under the title, "A propos d'histoire des religions'' 
(Paris, 191 1), represent his complete acceptance of the 
comparative method in the study of religion. 

Libraries. Beside the many general libraries in Paris, 
a few special collections should be mentioned: (i) 
Library of the Societe de Thistoire du Protestantisme 
frangais, about 60,000 vols, and mss.; (2) Library of the 
Faculte Libre de Theologie Protestante, about 36,000 
vols, on all branches of the study of Christianity; (3) 
Library of the Alliance Israelite, about 25,000 vols, on 
Judaism; (4) Library of the Ecole normale Israelite, 
about 30,000 vols, on Jewish history and literature; 
(5) Library of the ficole Rabbinique Centrale, about 
15,000 vols. 

Unique and extremely useful to the student is the 
Musee Guimet, with its 32,000 vols, and its large col- 
lection of religious objects of all kinds, photographs, etc., 
dealing principally with the religions of the Far East, 
but including collections for many other reHgions. 



Sociology 



Sociology 



The French have made many important contributions 
to the development of sociology as a science. The term 
itself was invented by Auguste Comte, who may be re- 
garded as the founder of systematic sociology. While a 
young man of about twenty, Comte became associated 
with Saint-Simon, who exercised a decisive influence on 
the direction which his speculation in the field of social 
philosophy took. He was in no sense a follower of 
Saint-Simon; but (to use his own word) Saint-Simon 
'launched'' him by suggesting the two starting-points 
of what was later developed into the Comtist system — 
first, that political phenomena are as capable of being 
grouped under laws as other phenomena; and second, 
that the true destination of philosophy must be social, 
and the true object of the thinker must be the reorgan- 
ization of the moral, religious, and poHtical systems. 
Although he later broke with Saint-Simon on account of 
the latter's sentimental schemes of social reconstruction, 
Comte was nevertheless indebted to him for these ideas, 
and others of less importance, which he developed into 
a philosophical structure, that has had a profound in- 
fluence on all subsequent sociological thinking. 

Prior to Comte, sociological studies everywhere had 
been largely fragmentary and polemical. He undertook 
to discover a principle of unity in society that would 
mean for sociology what the law of gravitation meant for 

* [Drafting Committee: T. N. Carver, Harvard University; 
F. S. Deibler, Northwestern University; F. H. Giddings, Columbia 
University; E. A. Ross, University of Wisconsin. — Ed.] 

323 



324 SOCIOLOGY 

physics. He was obliged, however, to abandon his quest 
for such a principle, and was led to emphasize in the 
development of his social philosophy three stages, — the 
theological, the metaphysical, and the positive, or scien- 
tific. These three stages had been suggested both by 
Turgot and Saint-Simon, but with Comte they became 
fundamental. In reality Comte was a system-builder, 
and it has been said of him that "so well did he do his 
task that social philosophy since his day has done little 
more than to fill in his outline and correct and supple- 
ment his methods." 

Following Comte, the contributions of French writers 
to the development of sociological thought were meager 
until after the war of 1870. However, in this interval, 
CouRNOT, in his "Essai sur le fondement de nos connais- 
ances'' and in his second volume, " Enchainement des 
idees fondamentales,'' did undertake to build on the 
physical and biological sciences a new positive science 
that should treat of social questions. By 1870, Herbert 
Spencer had shown the application of the principle of 
evolution to the development of social institutions, and 
had particularly emphasized the resemblances between 
social and biological organisms. Starting with this 
concept, EspiNAS, in his work, "Les Societes animales'' 
(Paris, 1877), endeavored to illustrate and prove this 
thesis. During the next thirty years, the French scien- 
tists originated and developed some of the most widely 
accepted sociological concepts and principles. The result 
has been that French scholarship has exercised a dominat- 
ing influence in stimulating sociological investigation the 
world over. Some American scholars have expressed 
their gratitude by saying that they have profited more 
from the French sociologists than from all others combined. 

Without attempting to make an inclusive list, the 
following may be cited as persons who have made distinct 



SOCIOLOGY 325 

contributions to the development of the subject. Among 
those who look upon classification as the principal means 
of understanding social structure and social processes, 
appear the names of Littre,De RoBERTY,and La Combe. 
FouiLLEE is representative of those who hold to the 
analogy between social and biological organisms. Closely 
akin to this group is Le Bon, who has interpreted society 
in terms of a quasi-psychological organism. Gabriel 
Tarde, in his "Laws of Imitation,^' represents those 
who have endeavored to explain social progress in terms 
of a single principle. The name of Vacher de la Pouge 
would appear among those who endeavor to explain 
social progress through struggle and survival. Finally, 
the name of Le Play, who founded the "Societe Inter- 
nationale des etudes pratiques d'economie sociale,'' 
stands high among those who follow the inductive method 
in studying social facts and forces. 

In addition to the above list, there are those who have 
made distinct contributions to some specific field of 
sociological research, or to the method of studying the 
subject. QuETELET should be mentioned in this con- 
nection for his efforts to adapt statistical methods to the 
analysis arid evaluation of social forces. Notable also 
has been the work of Letourneau on the evolution of 
the family, of laws, of property, etc. ; of Dumont on the 
effect of depopulation and caste on the objective of 
sociology; of Durkheim, on primitive forms of religious 
life, on suicide, prohibition of incest, etc.; of Hubert 
and Mauss, on sacrifice and magic; of Bougle, on the 
regime of castes; of Simiand on the wages of mine work- 
ers; and of many others. 

Periodicals and Societies. Besides direct contribu- 
tions to the subject, as indicated above, the French have 
taken an active part in founding journals and societies 



326 SOCIOLOGY 

devoted to the advancement of sociological study and 
research. 

The most important of the journals are: "La Reforme 
Sociale/' founded by Le Play in 1881; "La Science 
Sociale, suivant la methode de Le Play," edited since 
1886 by Ed. Demoulins; "Annales de Flnstitut Inter- 
national de Sociologie," edited since 1894 under the 
direction of Rene Worms; "Revue Internationale de 
Sociologie," published since 1896; "L'Annee Socio- 
logique," edited since 1899 by E. Durkheim. 

Among the learned societies in this field, there should 
be mentioned the "Societe d 'Economic Sociale," "the 
Societe de Statistique de Paris," and the "Societe 
d 'Economic Politique ' ' located at Paris. Anthropological 
societies are located at Paris, Grenoble, Lyon, and 
Montpellier. 

Instruction in the Universities. The chief center in 
France for the study of sociology is at Paris. In the 
Law School of the University of Paris, courses are offered 
by GiDE, on comparative social economy; by Gar^on, 
on criminal law and comparative penal legislation; by 
Beauregard, Rist, Perreau, and Trauchy, on po- 
litical economy. Under the Faculty of Letters, courses 
are offered by Bougle on socialism and social and 
political economy, by Durkbeim on education ^nd 
sociology. In the College of France, courses are offered 
by FusTER, on the struggle against tuberculosis and hous- 
ing reforms, and on social insurance; by Izoulet, on social 
philosophy; by Le Chatelier, on sociology of the 
Mussulmans; and by Renard, on the history of labor. 

Outside of Paris, to mention some of those who appear 
in the faculty Hsts of the various Colleges and Univer- 
sities as devoting their entire time to the subject of 
sociology: at the University of Bordeaux, Gaston 



SOCIOLOGY 327 

Richard offers courses in the field of social science, as 
does also Gabriel Melin at the University of Nancy. 
Courses in the kindred subjects of political economy, 
history of economic thought, criminal law, and industrial 
legislation are given at the Universities of Aix-Marseille, 
Bordeaux, Caen, Dijon, Grenoble, Lille, Lyon, Mont- 
pellier, Nancy, Poitiers, Rennes, and Toulouse. 



Zoology 



Zoology 



It is universally recognized that the French have taken 
a prominent part in the development of biological science. 
In the nineteenth century, Cuvier laid the foundations 
of comparative anatomy and Claude Bernard gave an 
immense impetus to experimental physiology, while 
Lamarck, Dujardin, and Pasteur were pioneers and 
innovators in three of the greatest biological achievements 
of the century. These three outstanding events that so 
profoundly influenced the course of biological thought 
are: the announcement of the theory of organic evolution, 
the discovery of protoplasm, and the establishment of 
the germ-theory of disease in connection with the science 
of bacteriology. We may first briefly consider the part 
played by Frenchmen in launching these three great 
movements, and then take up matters that are more 
strictly zoological. Inasmuch as Botany receives con- 
sideration in a separate chapter, that which follows in 
this chapter will apply to Zoology and its various sub- 
divisions, and, also, to some of those movements which 
in their broad applications affect the entire field of 
biological science. 

( i) Organic Evolution, The doctrine of organic evolution 
has produced the greatest intellectual ferment of the past 
century. It has entered into the framework of all scien- 
tific thinking, and has been characterized as "one of the 

^ [Drafting Committee: G. N. Calkins, Columbia University; 
F. R. LiLLiE, University of Chicago; W. A. Locy, Northwestern 
University. — Ed.] 

331 



332 ZOOLOGY 

greatest acquisitions of human knowledge/' In the 
establishment of this generalization a French zoologist, 
Lamarck, was the leader. Although the evolutionary 
point of view had been vaguely suggested at different 
times, Lamarck (i 744-1829) was the first to announce 
a comprehensive theory of organic evolution that has 
maintained to the present time a creditable standing in 
the intellectual world. His immediate predecessors, 
BuFFON, Goethe, and Erasmus Darwin, dealt with the 
same great theme, but much less rigorously than Lamarck, 
whose theory was so much more thoroughly thought out 
that it completely superseded all earlier attempts and 
marks the beginning of evolutionary thought in its 
modern sense. It was first announced by Lamarck in 
1800 and was somewhat elaborated in 1802, 1803, and 
1806. Finally, it was fully expounded in his " Philosophie 
Zoologique,'' in 1809, and that year marks the first dis- 
tinct epoch in the rise of evolutionary thought. 

This is not the place to enter into consideration of 
the principles laid down by Lamarck; but it is a signifi- 
cant circumstance that, a century after being promul- 
gated, his principle of use-inheritance should have been 
revived, and, under the title of "Neo-Lamarckism,'' 
should occupy such a prominent place in the discussions 
regarding the factors of organic evolution that are being 
carried on at the present time. This shows better than 
anything else the position commanded by this French 
zoologist in the natural science of the nineteenth century. 

After a long lapse of time the field of organic evolution 
is now represented in Paris by a professorship of organic 
evolution under the charge of Maurice Caullery. 

(2) Protoplasm, The consequences that followed from 
the discovery of protoplasm, and the recognition of its 
true nature, form another notable scientific advance of 



ZOOLOGY 333 

the century. Although this substance had been casually 
observed at intervals from 1755 onwards, its true nature 
was entirely unrecognized. The turning point came 
when Felix Dujardin (i 801-1860) experimented with 
it and distinguished between it and other forms of matter, 
such as mucus, gum, gelatine, albumen, etc., with which 
it had superficial resemblance. He designated it "sar- 
code," recognized it as the physical substratum of life, 
and in 1835 announced it as a living jelly endowed with 
all the properties of life. This idea received elaboration 
from various sources, and, finally, culminated in the 
demonstration by Max Schultze (1861) of the essential 
identity of all living substance in plants and animals and 
now designated protoplasm. This, in combination with 
the cell theory of Schwann, led to the foundation of 
biology in its modern sense, and Dujardin ranks as the 
scientific discoverer of protoplasm. 

(3) Germ Theory of Disease. The brilliant work of 
Pasteur (182 2-1 895) belongs to all biology. Starting 
his scientific career as a chemist, he branched into bio- 
logical fields, and through his later work came to be 
recognized as one of the foremost men of biological 
history. His supreme service was in applying the re- 
sult of biological investigation to the benefit of man- 
kind. In laying the foundation of micro-parasitology 
(about 1875), he opened a subject that overlaps the 
different conventional divisions of biology, and his foun- 
dations have been built upon by botanists, zoologists, 
and physicians. His investigation gave an immense 
impulse to the study of pathogenic organisms; and while 
his researches supplied the foundations of scientific 
medicine, at the same time they opened investigations 
in the life-history of micro-organisms that have been so 
extensively developed by zoologists. 



334 ZOOLOGY 

His studies on the spontaneous generation of life, his 
observations on the nature of fermentation, on the 
micro-organisms causing silkworm diseases, and on the 
floating matter of the air, found applications in physiology 
and surgery as well as in other departments of biological 
investigation. These studies also formed the basis from 
which, by a series of ascending steps, he rose to the study 
of toxins and antitoxins and to the formation of various 
serums and vaccines. The establishment of the first 
Pasteur Institute in Paris, in 1888, served to unify his 
work and to house the different kinds of biological inves- 
tigation he had set under way. 

The temper of the French people is shown in the 
popular vote taken in 1907, that placed Pasteur at the 
head of all their notable men. This is significant of the 
cordiality extended by the French mind to scientific 
investigation and to intellectual achievements. 

The three scientific achievements spoken of above were 
of general application to all biological science. We may 
now turn attention more specifically to the zoological 
side; and, in doing so, it tends to clearness to recognize 
that some of the subjects of the medical curriculum are 
zoological in nature. Such subjects as anatomy, histol- 
ogy, embryology, and physiology, while they have their 
practical utiHty for medical men, are divisions of the 
zoological territory. Likewise, palaeontology, which has 
been so cultivated by French investigators, belongs to 
the morphological side of zoology. 

(4) Comparative Anatomy. The morphological and 
physiological aspects of animals constitute the foundation 
of the zoologist's training. In the early years of the 
nineteenth century, the influence of Cuvier (i 769-1832) 
was dominant in zoology. This French zoologist and 
legislator showed great zeal for the study of animal 



ZOOLOGY 335 

structure; he founded comparative anatomy and verte- 
brate palaeontology. The influence of Linn^us had 
been to arouse an interest in natural history and in the 
systematic arrangement of animals; but Cuvier directed 
attention to more essential features, such as the struct- 
ure, or organization, of animals, and he turned the current 
of zoological progress into better and more promising 
channels. In his investigations, he covered the whole 
field of animal organization, from the lowest to the high- 
est; and, combining his results with what had been 
accomplished by earlier workers, he established com- 
parative anatomy on broad Hues ("Legons d'anatomie 
comparee," 1801-05) as an independent branch of natural 
science. In the meantime he had also engaged in the 
study of fossil vertebrates, and the publication of his 
"Recherches sur les ossements fossiles'' (181 2) founded 
the science of vertebrate palaeontology. 

Lamarck, his distinguished contemporary, observed 
the fossil remains of invertebrate animals and, in the 
early years of the nineteenth century, founded inverte- 
brate palaeontology. It thus appears that the beginnings 
of comparative anatomy of living animals and the com- 
parative study of fossil remains rest on French founda- 
tions. 

Simultaneously with the earlier work of Cuvier, the 
talented Bichat (1771-1801) essayed a deeper analysis 
of animal structure. He directed attention especially to the 
tissues of animals, and thereby prepared the ground for 
the rise of histology. 

In the domain of comparative anatomy, the work of 
Cuvier was developed in France by Henri Milne- 
Edwards (1800-1885) and by Lacaze-Duthiers (1821- 
1901). Milne-Edwards' "Legons sur la physiologic et 
Fanatomie comparee,'' in fourteen volumes, 185 7-1 881, 
is a mine of information for the comparative anatomist 



336 ZOOLOGY 

and the physiologist. Lacaze-Duthiers, by numerous 
researches, by his stimulating influence on students, and 
by his editorship of the "Archives de Zoologie experimen- 
tale et generale'' did much to further the progress of 
comparative anatomy. 

(5) General Physiology, On the physiological side 
there has been no investigator that has surpassed Claude 
Bernard (1813-1878) either in the profundity of his 
researches or in his influence on the progress of physiology. 
Building upon the work of Harvey, of Haller, and of 
Johannes Mueller, he broadened physiology and gave 
to it a distinctly modern aspect. His "Introduction a 
Tetude de la medecine experimental '' (1865) establishes 
his rank as the foremost expounder of experimental 
physiology. Among his notable researches is the dis- 
covery of the glycogonic function, or sugar formation 
of the liver, one of the first and most complete studies 
of internal secretions. He also discovered the existence 
of vaso-motor nerves and experimentally observed their 
influence in regulating the blood supply to different parts 
of the body. The first comprehensive treatment of 
general physiology was contained in his now classic 
"Leg:ons sur les phenomenes de la vie communs aux 
animaux et aux vegetaux.'' He gave a tremendous 
impulse to physiology, and takes rank with the foremost 
men of all time who have worked in this field. 

Lamarck, Claude Bernard, and Pasteur, who may be 
said to have opened in biology the broad fields of evolu- 
tion, physiology, and preventive medicine, represent a 
triumvirate of strength and ability worthy to stand with 
the limited number of scientific men who have produced 
results of the highest value to the intellectual world. 

On these broad foundations, which were added to by 
the productive minds of other nations, the French 
developed a line of university studies that make a strong 



ZOOLOGY 337 

appeal to the student of zoology, and we may now give 
attention to the opportunities that are open to advanced 
students of this science in their universities. 

Opportunities at the French Universities.— The 
French universities are admirably equipped in personnel 
and material for training biologists for university posi- 
tions. The incidental advantages are to be placed co- 
ordinate with the scientific. To miss the experience of 
university studies in Paris is to lose "one of the greatest 
opportunities of the intellectual life.'' To a penetrating 
quality of mind the French university professors generally 
add finish and refinement in the presentation of the 
background and of the achievement of scientific investi- 
gation. The method of lecturing in France is character- 
ized by thoroughness, lucidity, finish, and philosophical 
grasp; and contact with these excellent models is invalu- 
able in molding the standard of production as well as 
of literary form and the art of expression. Nicholas 
Murray Butler, president of Columbia University, in 
writing of his impressions as a student in Paris, makes 
this pertinent observation: "For the first time the Latin 
spirit came to have definite meaning and reaUty. It 
was so different from the Anglo-Saxon spirit as revealed 
in America and so different from the Teutonic spirit as 
revealed in Berlin. Somehow it seemed subtler and more 
refined, more dehcate and more highly civilized than 
either." 

While the opportunities at Paris are alluring, it is un- 
doubtedly a better plan to begin one's student life in 
France at one of the provincial universities. One is less 
diverted, and comes more thoroughly into touch with 
French life; and there is no lack of men of distinction in the 
various universities outside of Paris. The zoological 
student might do well to start at Montpellier (Duboscq), 



338 ZOOLOGY 

a relatively small city, where opportunities for zoological 
instruction are excellent. Bordeaux, Grenoble (Leger), 
Lyon (Testut), and Toulouse (Lecaillon) also offer 
especial attractions. The French universities, although 
not all organized on the same scale of size, are on a parity 
as regards standards. Some of the universities command 
a foremost place on account of the presence of men of 
unusual distinction on their faculties. The student of 
zoology should select his university according to the pro- 
fessors and the facilities for study in the particular phase 
of zoology in which he is most interested. In general, 
opportunities will be wider in those universities having 
a medical as well as a scientific faculty. 

Zoology. To enumerate a complete list of zoological 
courses would be tedious and needless; they are set forth 
in the various annual catalogues published under the 
name of ^^Livret de TEtudiant.^' The following is 
merely an abbreviated list of courses that serves to indi- 
cate the range of subjects: 

At the Sorbonne, the distinguished professor Yves 
Delage (author of "L'Heredite et les grands problemes 
de la biologic generale,'' etc.) supervises work in zoology, 
comparative anatomy, and physiology. These zoological 
courses are supplemented by Pruvot, Houssay, 
Terrier, Perez, and others. The complementary work 
in general physiology is directed by Dastre (textbook) 
and general biology is conducted by Le Dantec. 
Maurice Caullery (exchange professor in 191 5-16 at 
Harvard University) offers courses in embryology and the 
evolution of organized beings, and also directs a marine 
station at Wimereux (Pas-de-Calais). Other seaside sta- 
tions connected with the University of Paris are at Roscoff 
(Delage, Director) and at Banyuls (Pruvot, Director). 

The Medical Faculty of Paris offers courses in physi- 
ology by RiCHET (''Dictionnaire de Physiologic") and 



ZOOLOGY 339 

Langlois; in anatomy under Nicolas (^' Bibliographic 
anatomique^O ; in parasitology by Blanchard ("Traite 
de zoologie'O and by Brumpt; in histology by Prenant 
(author of a well-known textbook of embryology); and 
in comparative and experimental embryology by Loisel. 

At the College de France, Henneguy offers work in 
comparative and experimental embryology, and at the 
Laboratoire de Cytologic courses in cytology. General 
biology is under the charge of Gley, and histology of the 
nervous system under Nagoette. In addition should 
be mentioned the laboratory of histology directed by 
Jolly. 

At the Museum d'Histoire Naturelle, there arc ex- 
cellent opportunities for the study of particular divisions 
of zoology, as under Perrier, comparative anatomy; 
Roxtle, fishes, amphibia, and reptiles; Joubin, annelids 
and mollusks; Bonnier, entomology; Trouessart, 
birds and mammals; Boule, palaeontology. 

At the Pasteur Institute, organized for complete instruc- 
tion in bacteriology, serum pathology, etc., are Roux, the 
Director; Metschnikoef (author of researches on in- 
flammation, immunity, etc.); and other distinguished 
scholars. 

Zoology has also been enriched by French investiga- 
tions along special lines of interest giving rise to sub- 
divisions of its larger provinces. There are, for illustra- 
tion, unusual opportunities for the pursuit of proto- 
zoology and parasitology, of entomology and palaeontology, 
especially that part of it that relates to the fossil remains 
of man. 

Protozoology and Parasitology. — In regard to unicel- 
lular organisms, there has been created the department 
of protozoology with especial reference to pathogenic 
protozoa, and with this there is often combined the study 
of internal parasites, forming the subject of parasitology. 



340 ZOOLOGY 

In France, F. Mesnil, E. Chatton, and others, have 
been leaders. Incidentally, it may be mentioned that 
until recently there has been associated with the Pasteur 
Institute Laveran, a veteran in the study of pathogenic 
protozoa, whose demonstration, in 1880, of the Plas- 
modium of malaria marks almost the beginning of work 
in parasitic protozoology. Besides the work at the 
Pasteur Institute, Raphael Blanchard, editor of the 
'^Archives de parasitologic," and member of the medical 
faculty in Paris, offers courses in parasitology. Micro- 
biology and parasitology are especially provided for at 
the Universities of Algiers, Montpellier, Nancy, and 
Poitiers. 

Entomology, — In this field, including life-histories, 
structure, habits and relation of insects to the organic 
world the French annals show many notable names. 
On the structural side, comes to mind the famous mono- 
graph of SxRAUs-DtJRCKHEiM, and the investigations of 
Leon DiiFOUR. The late J. Henri Fabre (1823-1915) 
holds high esteem in the study of the behavior of insects. 
His ten volumes of "Souvenirs entomologiques " are 
deservedly world-famous. Many of his books have been 
translated into English and are widely known. As a 
successor to this interesting naturalist, cultivating 
entomology in the same spirit with a more modern direc- 
tion, may be mentioned Pol Marschal at the Institut 
Agronomique. The courses in entomology by Bonnier 
have been already indicated. At the University of 
Rennes is a Station of Entomology, giving especial 
attention to insects injurious to vegetation. 

Zoological Palaeontology. — As already stated, the in- 
vestigation of extinct animals is properly included in 
zoology, since they were merely the forerunners of living 
animals, although the study is usually pursued under a 
separate division of science designated Palaeontology. 





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GEORGES CUVIER (1769-183 2) 
(From a painting in the Sorbonne) 



ZOOLOGY 341 

While the whole field of palaeontology is illuminating to 
zoologists, especial interest has centered about the fossil 
remains of man that are already throwing so much light 
on the question of human lineage. Manouvrier, of the 
Medical faculty, Boule of the Museum of Natural 
History, and other Frenchmen are eminent in this Hne. 
No richer territory for explorations of prehistoric man 
have been opened than those of Southwestern France 
in the region of the Dordogne and the Vezere. Boule's 
many investigations, including his monograph on "Homo 
moustierensis," have aroused the greatest interest, and 
the student of fossil remains of man will find in France 
excellent opportunities for observation and instruction.^ 
Sundry Subjects. Some special courses of interest to 
students of zoology should be mentioned. Connected 
with the University of Clermont-Ferrand is a fresh water 
station devoted chiefly to the biology of rivers and lakes 
(limnology). Courses in pisciculture are given at Nancy 
and Toulouse, and at the latter University hydrobiology 
is especially designated. History of the natural sciences 
is offered at the University of Lyon, and History of the 
medical sciences is provided for in the medical faculty 
of Paris. In addition to the marine stations, mentioned 
in connection with the University of Paris, are those at 
Cette, in Herault (Duboscq, of Montpellier, director); 
the station of Arcachon, organized for study of the 
fauna of the Arcachon basin and of the ocean, and con- 
nected with the University of Bordeaux; the laboratory 
of Luc-sur-mer of the University of Caen; the marine 
laboratory du Portel of the University of Lille; St. Vaast- 
le-Hougue, connected with the Museum and directed by 
E. Perrier; the station of Lamaris-sur-mer, connected 
with the University of Lyon; and the research station at 

^ [See also the paragraphs on Palaeontology, in the Chapters on Geology 
and Anthropology in this volume. — Ed.] 



342 ZOOLOGY 

Endoume, connected with the University of Marseille. 
L'Institut Oceanographique, maintained by Albert the 
First, Prince of Monaco, possesses an unrivalled laboratory 
and equipment, and is notable for contributions to the 
science of oceanography. 

Libraries, Museums, Societies, Periodicals. As ad- 
juncts to the pursuit of zoology in France are many 
scientific establishments, such as libraries, museums, 
scientific societies, and periodicals for the publication of 
results. 

The library facilities of Paris are notable, with the 
great Bibliotheque Nationale in the lead, possessing 
more than 3,500,000 volumes and 500,000 pamphlets. 
The library of the Sorbonne has upwards tof 600,000 
volumes and the medical library 17,000. University 
libraries having from 125,000 to 200,000 volumes exist 
at Lyon, Lille, Toulouse, Nancy, and Montpellier. 

Museums of interest to zoologists are found at 
Besangon, Bordeaux, Caen, Lille, Lyon, Montpellier, 
and of course at Paris. 

Scientific societies are highly organized and very active 
in Paris. Many have their separate publications. Among 
those of interest to zoologists may be mentioned : '^ Societe 
anatomique"; "Association frangaise pour I'avance- 
ment des sciences''; "Societe de biologic"; "Societe 
entomologique" ; "Societe de neurologic"; "Societe 
zoologique"; etc. 

Among the periodicals for the publication of researches 
of a zoological character are to be noted the following: 
"Archives de zoologie experimentale et generale"; 
"Annales de ITnstitut Pasteur"; "Archives d'anatomie 
microscopique" ; "Archives de parasitologic"; "L'An- 
thropologie" ; "Bibliographic anatomique"; "Bulletin 
scientifique de la France et de la Belgique"; "Revue 



ZOOLOGY 343 

critique de paleozoologie" ; "Revue neurologique" ; "Bul- 
letin de rinstitut oceanographique" ; "Annales de I'ln- 
stitut oceanographique" ; etc. 

It must be recognized that the French universities 
afford great opportunities for the training of investiga- 
tors in zoology and all those subjects that are basal to 
the study of medicine. The distinctive qualities of 
French instruction are fitted to supply a final polish to 
the student already trained in the rigorous method of 
the scientific laboratories. The judgment and the fine 
feeling of the University professors of France for mental 
attributes is a stimulus and a direct help in enabling one 
toimprove one's own standards of mental activity and of 
intellectual production. 



Appendix I 



Appendix V 

Educational Advantages for American 

Students in France; with a History 

OF the Recent Changes in 

its University System 

I. Past and Present. 

It is becoming more generally recognized that, except in special 
cases, an American student has no need of going abroad to secure 
what was formerly unattainable at home. At the beginning of 
the twentieth century the situation of America as regards educa- 
tion is radically different from what it was at the beginning of the 
nineteenth century. With the rapidity with which changes take 
place as time goes on, the chances are that the changes that will 
have taken place at the opening of the twenty-first century will be 
even more remarkable to contemplate than those which have 
occurred during the century just closed. 

At the beginning of the nineteenth century there existed a 
strong intellectual sympathy between France and America. 
Benjamin FrankHn, during his ministry in France (i 776-1 785), 
had more to do with stimulating this friendly feeling than any 
other American in those early days. Thomas Jefferson, however, 
FrankHn's successor as Minister to France (1785 — 1789), was no 
whit behind his illustrious predecessor in encouraging these rela- 
tions between the two countries. It was while in Paris that he 

*[By Professor James Geddes, Jr., of Boston University. 
This valuable article, containing a history of Franco-American university 
relations, first appeared in Bostonia (October, 1903, January and April, 1904). 
It was separately reprinted. The first edition was soon exhausted. Owing to 
repeated calls for the article, it finally appeared in the Waverley Magazine (Sep- 
tember, October, and November, 1908), the organ of the North American 
Teachers^ League. In its final form, the article was thoroughly revised, con- 
siderably augmented, brought to date of 1913, and reprinted. By consent of 
the author, it is here reproduced, with several omissions and a few verbal 
changes. — Ed J 

347 



348 APPENDIX I 

conceived the idea of founding an academy of arts and sciences 
at Richmond, Va., which should have branches in Baltimore, Phila- 
delphia, and New York. But before his plans could be matured 
the French Revolution interrupted them. Nevertheless, upon 
his return to America the higher education continued actively 
to interest him. He corresponded with the French political 
economist, Dupont de Nemours, upon this subject. The result 
of this correspondence was that the French scholar published an 
essay embodying his own ideas in regard to education in the United 
States. French was then the language of international communi- 
cation. France had, through her distinguished writers, contributed 
powerfully to enlarge science. In Jefferson's opinion the only two 
modern nations whose career deserved to be closely studied were 
France and England. 

The trend of ideas, as shown by Jefferson's attitude, turned 
gradually but persistently in another direction, towards Germany. 
The scholarly methods and work of the Germans became appre- 
ciated. Edward Everett was the first American to take the 
degree of doctor of philosophy, at Gottingen, in 1817. His ex- 
ample was followed by such well-known Americans as George 
Bancroft, Basil Gildersleeve, and WiUiam Goodwin. In this 
country, Yale University was among the first of the institutions 
of learning to confer this degree, in 1861; Harvard followed in 
1875, and Johns Hopkins in 1878. In all of these institutions 
the reasons for conferring this degree were practically those for 
which German universities gave it. That is, essentially, that 
in addition to college instruction the student must have had 
long training at a university in original investigation and proven 
his right to be recognized as a master workman by university 
examination and the publication of some results of original 
research. 

Thus it will be seen that if France and England hold places 
of importance in the world of science, they are not the only coun- 
tries whose ways of investigating subjects and accomplishing 
results are considered worthy of attention. Particularly since 
1870, Germany has developed remarkably, both materially and 
intellectually. During the nineteenth century the prestige of 
England, due largely to the admirable admininstration of her 
colonial possessions, has not failed to receive due recognition. 
Moreover, the ties of kinship, mutual interests, and common 
language are factors that must ever attract American students 




THE OLD SORBONNE. FACADE 



EDUCATIONAL ADVANTAGES IN FRANCE 349 

toward English university centers. It is, therefore, easy to 
understand why Americans went to the universities in BerHn, 
Leipsic, Bonn, and Heidelberg, as well as to Oxford and Cam- 
bridge. The influence of Americans who received their training 
in German universities and are employed as teachers in many 
institutions of learning throughout the United States has been very 
sensibly felt. This is one of the reasons why hundreds of American 
students could be counted in German university centers. The 
inducements held out to foreign students in Germany were at- 
tractive. They were hospitably received, and upon presenting 
their credentials from an institution whose standing is known, were 
ordinarily duly matriculated. Two years of serious work along 
their chosen Hues, together with a thesis showing some originahty 
and hard work, and the passing of an examination upon the entire 
field covered, constituted a fair guarantee of receiving the degree 
of doctor of philosophy. The value of this degree to a young man 
intending to make teaching in his own country his life work nobody 
will be disposed to question. 

II. The Effect of Centralization in France. 

The advantage, in all branches of learning, of a sojourn in 
France, and especially in Paris, are unsurpassed. Nevertheless, 
even for Romance studies, our students have gone in considerable 
nimibers to Germany. There, as has just been shown, besides a 
hearty welcome and advantages of a high order, it was possible 
for them to secure a reward in the shape of something tangible, 
which upon their return home might prove of the most valuable 
assistance in obtaining positions. These advantages were, gen- 
erally speaking, very clearly understood by American students. 
Why was it, then, that our students, who during the past fifty 
years have known so well how to take advantage of the oppor- 
tunities offered for study in England and Germany, have not been 
attracted towards a friendly country no less distinguished in letters, 
arts, and sciences than the other two foreign countries? 

In the first place, because the organization of the higher educa- 
tion in France has hardly been known. Almost everybody in the 
scholastic world has heard of the Universite de Paris, of the Sor- 
bonne,and of the College de France; also, perhaps, of the Universite 
nationale-de France, the Ecole pratique des hautes etudes, and sundry 
academies or universites in different parts of France, like Toulouse 



350 APPENDIX I 

Montpellier, Bordeaux, and Grenoble. But just what these insti- 
tutions are, their relation to the State or to each other, whether 
they receive foreign students, or if so, whether degrees are granted, 
were questions not readily answered by those of us not making a 
specialty of educational topics. The vicissitudes, moreover, 
through which educational institutions along with everything else 
in France passed during the French Revolution, have served to 
make the status of higher education seem more complex than it 
really is. 

The UniversiU de Paris still exists, bearing at least the name of 
the celebrated old seat of learning that came formally into existence 
about the middle of the twelfth century. A century later, Robert 
de Sorbon, the chaplain and confessor of St. Louis, founded in the 
University of Paris a school of theology. This school became one 
of the constituent parts, and the predominant one, giving its name 
to the entire theological faculty in the University; and today the 
University of Paris itself is everywhere familiarly known as the 
''Sorbonne," although the latter school ceased to exist in 1790. 
The provincial universities in France arose to meet the wants of the 
districts where they were, at different epochs after the founding 
of the University of Paris. There were twenty-five of them, of 
which Toulouse, founded in the first part of the thirteenth century, 
and Montpellier, in the latter part, were the oldest. The College 
de France was founded by Francis I, in 1529. The king believed 
that the University of Paris was devoting too much attention to 
some subjects and not enough to others. It was designed to pro- 
mote the more advanced tendencies of the time and to counteract 
the scholasticism taught in the University. The Ecole pratique 
des hautes etudes is a unique institution of comparatively recent 
origin, dating from the Second Empire (1852). 

These names, then, so often heard in connection with the sub- 
ject of education in France, have indicated institutions whose 
status was clearly defined and easily understood. Why is it, then, 
that these establishments do not stand forth clearly cut like 
Oxford, Cambridge, Gottingen, and Bonn? Both the names of 
the French universities, as well as the institutions of learning them- 
selves, have a haze about them that is absent from similarly or- 
ganized faculties of learning abroad. 

The principal reason for this vagueness is that at the time of 
the Revolution the entire system of education was revolutionized. 
The University of Paris, as well as all the provincial universities, 



EDUCATIONAL ADVANTAGES IN FRANCE 351 

was suppressed. The hand of Napoleon then made itself felt in the 
new organization. Centrahzation in education became the order 
of the day. The universities, originally independent, were con- 
solidated into one great institution, the Universite nationale de 
France, of which the Universite de Paris and the faculties at Tou- 
louse, Montpelher, and elsewhere in the provinces were sections 
known as academies. The whole system of education was directly 
under the minister of public instruction, entirely a government 
affair. Everything went on automatically and with such clock- 
work precision that it was said the minister could tell a visitor not 
only what subject was being taught throughout France at a par- 
ticular time, but the verb itself that was being conjugated just then 
in all the schools. 

III. Recent Sweeping Changes; 
The "University Degrees.'' 

Since those times there have been a great many changes, 
covering the entire educational field in France. Together with 
colonial expansion and the reorganization of the army, the 
educational transformation is the most considerable undertak- 
ing the government has accomplished. Characterized briefly, it 
is this: 

Public instruction has been developed in all directions and 
withdrawn as far as possible from the influence of the church. The 
laws relating to primary instruction have been improved and 
elementary education has been made free and obligatory. More- 
over, France has awakened to a realization of the benefits to be 
derived by making her educational centers attractive to foreign 
students. Before the act of July 10, 1896, higher education was 
entirely under the control of the minister of public instruction. 
The act of July 10, 1896, did away with State control of the insti- 
tutions for higher education, giving to them an independent 
existence of their own. Thus this act abolished Napoleon's consol- 
idated organization, the Universite nationale de France, and restored 
the academies to their former status of universities. These institu- 
tions are no longer under State control, for the regulations govern- 
ing them are made by the University Council, a body consisting 
of the principal members of the various faculties. Moreover, 
the French universities now have a legal standing like that of 
individuals, and may receive bequests or gifts from any one 



352 APPENDIX I 

desiring to aid them financially; formerly they could not receive 
gifts of money. 

The innovation that is of most interest to American students 
is one made especially to attract them, as well as foreign students 
in general, to the various French seats of learning, the fifteen 
universities in the different sections of the country. It pertains to 
degrees, and especially to the doctorate. Formerly the only pos- 
sible way for a foreigner to secure a French diplome or degree from 
any educational institution was by undergoing the same training 
and passing the same examinations prescribed for a French student. 
The French diploma confers rights upon the one holding it. For 
instance, the graduate who has received a degree from the medical 
school has the right to practice in France; the graduate, likewise, 
of the school of pharmacy has the right to open an apothecary shop ; 
so, too, the law-graduate has a right to practice law and to aspire 
to judicial government positions; and the graduate of the different 
*' ecoles normales " has the right to give instruction in the institution 
of the grade for which he has fitted himself. The French student 
begins at the age of sixteen a series of examinations, the first of 
which is the baccalaureate, a degree which represents, speaking 
broadly, attainments somewhat beyond those of our high-school 
graduates but considerably below those of our best colleges. He 
then goes on passing an examination yearly until he has reached 
the age of twenty-four or twenty-five years, when he should pass 
his final examination for the doctorate. These regulations still hold 
good for French or foreign students who desire to practice the 
learned professions in France. 

Most foreign students, however, and particularly our own, have 
no intention of pursuing studies with a view of competing with 
natives or of profiting pecuniarily by their foreign acquisitions 
elsewhere than at home. As a rule, American students desire cer- 
tain advantages procurable by a residence of about two years in the 
foreign country. They usually have had a college course at home 
and have no desire to spend nine years in France in order to be- 
come doctors in their specialties. Moreover, they can ill afford to 
spend two years of hard work in a foreign country without having 
an opportunity at the end of that time to possess a substantial 
guarantee vouching for the genuineness of their efforts. From the 
French standpoint, it was not possible for the French institutions 
to exempt foreign students from the regular course or to credit 
them with work done in foreign parts, without, in most cases, 



EDUCATIONAL ADVANTAGES IN FRANCE 353 

giving them an undue advantage over their own students. By any 
such method, the foreign student could secure a State degree in a 
relatively shorter time than the native. The problem was to adapt 
the curriculum to meet the wants of foreign students while pre- 
serving intact the rights of French students. This the act of 1896 
accompHshed, by authorizing the universities to create titles of a 
different character from the ones conferring State rights or priv- 
ileges. In no case can the former degrees be considered a substi- 
tute for the latter. These new degrees were known as "University 
degrees," instead of ''State degrees." 

The different universities in France, in accordance with the act 
of July 10, 1896, have created doctorates. The regulations per- 
taining to acquiring this title are made by the university conferring 
it, but practically the principle governing the bestowal of the de- 
gree is the same in all of the sixteen French universities. The 
State degrees remain as before, open to all foreigners who care to 
submit to the same ordeal to obtain them as do the native 
students. 

^ It may now readily be seen that the higher education in France 
is practically upon the same basis as that in the universities of Ger- 
many or at the graduate schools of the well-known universities in 
our own country. The system governing the reception of foreign 
students, the splendid advantages offered, and the bestowal of the 
doctorate by the universities in France, are all along similar lines 
that in Germany have long proved attractive to Americans. The 
requirements enabhng a student to pursue the courses in any one of 
the sixteen French universities — fitness shown by examination, or 
by the presentation of a diploma, or certificate or degree, from a 
college or school of high standing — are practically the same as 
those called for in order to pursue courses in any one of the twenty- 
six universities in Germany. The sixteen French universities, each 
with four or five faculties (Letters, Law, Science, Medicine, Phar- 
macy), now stand forth as clearly defined as the twenty-six sister 
universities in Germany. 

The act which has effected the great changes described in the 
organization of the French educational system, and particularly 
changed the attitude towards foreign students of all the institu- 
tions for the higher education in France, is so important that before 
going on to speak of the different universities it will be of interest 
to learn something of the prime movers who brought about modi- 
fications so beneficial and so far-reaching. 



354 APPENDIX I 

IV. Origin of the Recent Changes. 

It seems a little odd that an American who, like many of his 
countrymen, after finishing his college course in America, had com- 
pleted his studies in Germany by taking the degree Ph. D. at Halle, 
should have been the first to bring the matter of reorganization of 
the higher education in France to the attention of the French au- 
thorities. After having made, in 1895, quite a thorough examina- 
tion of the principal schools in Paris, particularly the Sorbonne, 
College de France, Ecole des hautes etudes, Mr. Harry J. Furber, 
a graduate of the University of Chicago (1886), and for a number 
of years a student abroad and in foreign universities, came to the 
conclusion that the advantages which it might be possible for Amer- 
ican students to procure in Paris were extraordinary. He then 
asked himself why it was that, notwithstanding, there were but 
thirty American students enrolled at the Sorbonne, while at the 
same time at the University of Berlin there were over two hundred. 
Moreover, if a count were made of all American students pursuing 
courses in the twenty-six German universities, the sum total of 
more than a thousand would offer a still more unfavorable and 
striking contrast for France to the total number of American stu- 
dents enrolled in the latter country's sixteen university centers. 
As regards the number of artists and sculptors studying in Paris, 
the sum total of Americans among them proved clearly the superior 
attractiveness of the French capital to them as an art center over 
all other places. Mr. Furber realized that if the figures showed in 
the domain of letters so marked a predilection on the part of 
American students for German university centers, the inducements 
offered there in science and letters must be far superior to those 
offered in France. He then found what has already been shown; 
namely, that the regulations in force, while doubtless well adapted 
to the needs of French students, were entirely unsuitable to the 
wants of foreign students, and particularly Americans. Mr. Fur- 
ber then drew up a memorial stating the case clearly to M. Poin- 
care, the minister of public instruction. These ideas, of which a 
summary has here been presented, were given to the general public 
in an article published in the Journal des Debats, of June 7, 1895, 
by M. Michel Breal, a member of the Institute and a professor at 
the College de France. Moreover, M. Breal made a strong plea 
for the advantages offered outside of Paris by the provincial uni- 
versities. Nowhere, he said, could French life in all its intimacy 



EDUCATIONAL ADVANTAGES IN FRANCE 355 

and purity be so well studied as in the different French provinces. 
As examples of admirably equipped institutions, he cited those of 
Lyon and Lille; while others peculiarly endowed by nature with 
a rare climate and superb physical attractions are Dijon, Toulouse, 
Bordeaux, and Montpellier. Were he to begin life over again, he 
would be a student nowhere else than at Grenoble, the great natural 
beauties of which are so familiar to so many of our tourists. Paris, 
he concluded, may well be kept for the last semester and fittingly 
crown the foreign student's sojourn in France. 

The result of this article from the pen of so distinguished an 
educator as M. Breal was the formation, about a fortnight later, 
of a committee composed of the best known and influential men in 
the educational world in and around Paris. 

M. Breal addressed the meeting, supporting by word what had 
already appeared in print. The discussion was participated in by 
MM. Bonet-Maury, Greard, Lavisse, Maspero, Paul Mellon, 
Paul Meyer, and Parrot. In the course of the discussion, the sym- 
pathy and encouragement of M. Hanotaux, the minister of foreign 
affairs, and of M. Poincaire, of public instruction, were clearly 
shown by their approval of the plan or form a Franco-American 
committee. On the other hand, Mr. Furber voiced the equally 
hearty support of His Excellency, the ambassador of the United 
States, for this movement towards closer intellectual afl&liation. 
A commission was then and there (June 26, 1895) appointed to 
study into the question of how to facilitate the entrance of American 
students into French schools, and what inducements might prop- 
erly be held out. So important and far-reaching have been the 
results attained by this commission that it must be of interest to 
American students to know who the men are who have been instru- 
mental in securing for them such magnificent opportunities for 
study as are now to be had at a mere nominal cost in France. The 
members of the French commission were MM. Bonet-Maury, Pro- 
fessor in the Theological School; Michel Breal, of the Institute, 
Professor in the College de France; Bufnoir, Professor in the Law 
School; Darboux, of the Institute, Professor in the Scientific School; 
Giry, then Professor in the Ecole des Chartes; Lavisse, of the French 
Academy; Levasseur, Prof essor in the College de France; Maspero, 
of the Institute; Paul Mellon, Secretary of the Commission; Paul 
Meyer, of the Institute, Director of the ficole des chartes ; Gabriel 
Monod, Professor in the Ecole pratique des hautes etudes ; Schef er, of 
the Institute, then Director of the Ecole des langues orientales 



356 APPENDIX I 

vivantes. The name of the French ambassador to the United 
States, at that time M. Jules Cambon, was afterwards added to 
the hst. 

To cooperate with this commission and aid the members in ren- 
dering their efforts as effective as possible, in accordance with Pro- 
fessor Furber's suggestion, the following committee, chosen from 
distinguished American educators, was appointed: President 
Angell of the University of Michigan; President D wight of Yale 
University; President Eliot of Harvard University; President Gil- 
man of Johns Hopkins University; G.Brown Goode, Assistant Sec- 
retary in the United States National Museum; E. R. L. Gould, Sec- 
retary of the International Statistical Association; President G. 
Stanley Hall of Clark University; Wm. T. Harris, U. S. Commis- 
sioner of Education; S. P. Langley, Secretary of the Smithsonian 
Institute; President Seth Low of Columbia College; Simon New- 
comb, U. S. N., Superintendent of the Nautical Almanac; President 
Schurman of Cornell University; Andrew D. White, ex-Minis ter 
to Germany; President B. L. Whitman of Columbian University; 
Carroll D. Wright, U. S. Commissioner of Labor. The commission 
and the committee together constituted the Franco-American 
Committee. 

Immediately an active campaign to further the common cause 
was begun by both the members of the commission and those of 
the committee. In the way of propaganda, one of the best contri- 
butions appeared in the Forum, New York, May, 1897, from the 
pen of Simon Newcomb. This article was entitled ' 'France as a Field 
for American Students." The advantages to be had by the Amer- 
ican students at the Sorbonne, College de France, andEcole pratique 
des hautes etudes were well set forth. The article appeared before 
the creation of the degree of doctor of the university; nevertheless, 
the comparison between the French system then in vogue and the 
German system is luminous and will repay reading at any time. 
Another able article, most sympathetically written, and showing 
the friendly feeling between France and America during critical 
periods in the history of both, aimed to bring about closer intel- 
lectual relations in the immediate future. This article, by Pro- 
fessor Raphael George Levy, of theEcole libre des sciences poHtiques, 
was published in the Revue Internationale del'enseignement for Feb- 
ruary, 1897. In 1899, the Franco-American Committee, 87 boule- 
vard Saint-Michel, published a pamphlet containing in one hun- 
dred and thirty-eight pages a clear account of the system of higher 





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EDUCATIONAL ADVANTAGES IN FRANCE 357 

education in France, together with the changes recently effected, 
and making requirements for the doctorate perfectly clear. This 
publication has done much to do away with the lack of compre- 
hension in regard to the status of the French universities. The 
Comite de patronage des etudiants etrangers, office in the Sor- 
bonne, issued a luminous pamphlet, entitled: "New Diplomas of 
the French Universities; doctorate, license diplomas, certificates of 
studies; for the especial use of foreign students." Finally, in 1907, 
there appeared in the October number of the Echo des deux mondes, 
issued in Chicago, perhaps the best French periodical published in 
the United States, a concise summary of information upon the 
entire subject, with practical hints to aid students going to France 
for study. This summary was entitled ' ' Conseil aux Americains, ' ' and 
was written by M. Robert Dupouey of the faculty of the University 
of California. The substance of this useful article appeared in 
English in the University of California Chronicle, vol. IX, No. 4, 
1907, and was also separately printed. 

There seems now to be hardly any reason why a student intend- 
ing to study abroad should not obtain quite as clear an idea of the 
university system in France and the opportunities it offers as of the 
German university system and its advantages. To all of the above 
mentioned articles, and especially to the useful report of the Franco- 
American Committee, the writer of the present article desires to 
acknowledge his indebtedness. 

V. The University of Paris. 

Of the sixteen French universities, the University of Paris, or 
the Sorbonne, is by far the most renowned. It possesses traditions, 
like those of Salerno and Bologna, that only centuries of existence 
can give. The most influential scholars have been and still are 
connected with its teaching force. Of the original building con- 
structed by Cardinal Richelieu in 1629 for the Sorbonne, then the 
theological faculty of the University of Paris, the Church is the only 
portion that has been preserved. Since 1885 extensive building 
operations, only recently finished, have been going on, and now 
the University of Paris possesses one of the finest and costliest 
structures for educational needs to be found in all Europe, The 
front of the building is on the rue des Ecoles, just opposite the 
Hotel de Cluny, the site of the palace and baths of the Roman em- 
perors. The beautiful new home of the University of Paris is 



358 APPENDIX I 

the seat of the French Academy and of the faculties of Letters, 
Science, and Theology. The large amphitheater in the interior of 
the building, where public functions take place, will hold three 
thousand five hundred persons. This hall contains statues of 
Sorbon, Richelieu, and Rollin, who so identified themselves with 
the university, and of the eminent French scientists, Descartes, 
Pascal, and Lavoisier. At the end of the hall is the celebrated 
painting The Sacred Grove, by Puvis de Chavannes. Other por- 
tions of the interior of the Sorbonne are beautifully decorated by 
celebrated artists. 

At the five faculties constituting the University of Paris, law, 
letters, science, medicine, and pharmacy, the total number of stu- 
dents registered and in attendance at the courses during the year 
1906-1907 was 15,789. The lectures are free to the public. In 
some cases in which the subject itself or the lecturer is popular, the 
halls are apt to be crowded, and to obtain a seat it is necessary to 
be on hand early. The courses in literature are much frequented 
by ladies. This fact has been made the subject of much good- 
humored pleasantry by French writers. In Edouard Pailleron's 
comedy, Le Monde ou Von s'ennuie (which was very successful and 
now belongs to the repertoire of the Comedie Fran^aise) the author 
has amusingly set before the public the kind of fetich worship offered 
to a popular professor by his fair constituency. There are, besides 
the free lectures, courses called ' ' cours f ermes, ' ' where the personnel is 
restricted to the competency of those desiring to pursue them. 

As regards impartiality in granting equal advantages to men 
and women, as well as liberality in offering educational opportuni- 
ties that are almost absolutely free of expense to all, France is un- 
surpassed by any other nation. The function of offering exam- 
inations and giving degrees is kept rigidly distinct from that of 
offering instruction. The student pays for the former, but the 
latter is, save in rare instances, absolutely free. 

Inasmuch as the department of science is strictly separated 
from that of letters, the courses given at the Faculty of Letters will 
be found to be much along the lines laid down in the catalogs of 
American universities and applicable to the courses given in the 
college proper, omitting those devoted to the sciences and mathe- 
matics. In brief, they consist of culture studies, and largely of 
those so highly esteemed of old, and which, coming down through 
the ages, still hold their own amid the multitudinous subjects that 
are claiming recognition because of rapid changes in civilization. 



EDUCATIONAL ADVANTAGES IN FRANCE 359 

These long-accepted and cherished studies are Philosophy, History, 
Greek, Latin, French, Foreign Language and Literature, Political 
Economy and Sociology, all of them in their different phases and 
relations to allied topics; in a word, the humanities, using the word 
in the broadest possible sense. A subject not usually put down in 
the curriculum of American colleges or universities is Geography, 
to which much attention is given in the faculty of letters of all the 
French universities. Like the other subjects making up the 
courses, it is gone into very thoroughly, and there appear courses in 
modern, ancient, physical, colonial, and commercial geography. Po- 
litical Economy and Sociology figure on the prospectus of the fac- 
ulty of letters of the University of Paris, yet not as prominently as 
in the law-school course. It is in the latter faculty that the sub- 
ject is almost wholly pursued in all, or nearly all, the other French 
universities. French Literature, French History, and French Philos- 
ophy appear to be the centers to which attention is strongly di- 
rected. It is undoubtedly due in a large measure to this fact that 
France has in the past produced such brilliant philosophers, his- 
torians, and litterateurs. This trend in the direction of studies cer- 
tainly appears sensible from a practical standpoint, for it would 
seem to be a duty to be well informed in regard to what directly 
concerns one's native land and those who influence thought within 
its borders. 

Besides the ancient languages, Greek and Latin, whose litera- 
ture and philology receive a good share of attention, Sanskrit and 
Comparative Grammar of the Indo-European languages are studied 
under some of the foremost scholars in this department of lin- 
guistics. European literature, undoubtedly, embraces considerable 
of the best in the field in northern and southern Europe. The stress 
appears to be laid rather on the literary side of language than on 
the philological. This feature is in contrast with the curricula in 
some of the higher institutions of learning in the United States, 
where the emphasis is rather on the linguistic or philological side of 
language than on the literary. The two foreign languages to which 
most time and attention are given at the University of Paris are 
German and English, fully warranted by their importance. Paleog- 
raphy, generally speaking, is a subject that appears quite prom- 
inently in the courses offered by the faculties of letters in France, 
and for the study of which Paris has opportunities that are un- 
surpassed. American Institutions and Literature have within 
recent years been given a place. 



s6o APPENDIX I 

The Faculty of Sciences at the University of Paris embraces 
purely scientific subjects. They are treated widely in all their 
many phases, just as letters are in the Faculty of Letters. The sub- 
jects pursued are : Astronomy, Botany, Chemistry, Geology, Mathe- 
matics in all the higher branches. Mechanics, Mineralogy, Physical 
Geography, Physics, Physiology, and Zoology. No subjects, for 
instance, like Language, Letters, or Political Economy, such as are 
taught at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, more or less 
in connection with work in science, are found on the program 
of studies of the Faculty of Sciences. The former subjects are con- 
sidered as belonging to the department of letters, and to this latter 
faculty, consequently, they are relegated. The prominence given 
now in some of our scientific schools to Engineering, Architecture, 
and Landscape Architecture is due to the development of these sub- 
jects in recent years in this country. Although these topics are not 
to be found on the program of the French faculties of science, the 
subjects themselves have long received the most careful attention 
in French technical schools. 

The Faculty of Law of the University of Paris offers about forty 
courses given by as many different professors. Compared with the 
courses given in our law schools of good standing, the Paris courses 
are not so technical, and, speaking broadly, have considerable more 
educational value. There are no less than fifteen courses on political 
and economical science, a number of which, like Comparative 
Social Economy, Public International Law, History of Economic 
Doctrines, are of much general interest and value. Judging by the 
program of courses recently made at the Boston University School 
of Law, that is, the introduction of courses on International, Co- 
lonial, and Consular Law, it would appear that in the future more 
such courses as are offered abroad, and which are of educational 
value to all, are likely to be given in our law schools here. The 
impetus in this direction is in a large measure due to national ex- 
pansion. 

The courses offered by the Faculty of Medicine are similar to 
those that appear on the programs of our best medical schools. 
About sixty professors give as many courses either at the school 
itself, in the Place de I'Ecole-de-Medecine, or at various hospitals 
in the city. As pointed out in comparing the announcement of the 
law-school courses with similar ones in this country, the French 
medical schools likewise may possibly offer a few more popular or 
less technical courses than can be found in the American schools of 



EDUCATIONAL ADVANTAGES IN FRANCE 361 

medicine. At least the subjects of some of the courses, Hygiene, 
Physiology, Biological Physics, and Biological Chemistry, suggest 
courses of educational value that may not be and probably are not 
intended exclusively for specialists. 

The studies pursued at the Ecole superieure de Pharmacie are 
Analytical Chemistry, Galenic Pharmacy, Mineral Chemistry, 
Natural History of Medicaments, Physics, Zoology. Over a year 
of study is required at the school, and finally the presentation of a 
thesis containing personal research, which the candidate for a 
degree is called upon to elucidate. 

As already stated, there is no longer a sixth faculty, that of the 
ficole de Theologie protestante. The courses, however, at this school 
continue to be given by ten professors, and are similar to those laid 
down in the curricula of may Protestant theological schools in this 
country. They include Ecclesiastical History, EvangeHcal Ethics, 
German, History of Philosophy, Lutheran Dogma, New Testament, 
Old Testament, Organization of the Reformed Churches in France, 
Patristics, Practical Theology, Reformed Dogma, Revelation, and 
Holy Scripture. 

VL The Provincial Universities. 

The fifteen universities outside of Paris and in the different 
sections of France are Aix, Algiers, Besanfon, Bordeaux, Caen, 
Clermont-Ferrand, Dijon, Grenoble, Lille, Lyon, Montpellier, 
Nancy, Poitiers, Rennes, Toulouse. As their curricula are modeled 
in a measure upon that at the University of Paris, no detailed de- 
scription of them is necessary. None of them possesses, for ob- 
vious reasons, the unrivaled opportunities found at the University 
of Paris. Nevertheless, by this is not implied that they are lacking 
in attractiveness either of natural or intellectual resources. Indeed, 
the natural attractions of many of these institutions appeal to 
many more strongly than the city advantages of Paris. With the 
exception of the universities of Besangon and Clermont-Ferrand, 
which have only the three faculties. Letters, Science, and Medicine, 
the remaining provincial universities have four faculties: Law, Let- 
ters, Science, and Medicine; or five, counting the schools of Phar- 
macy, usually comprised in the medical schools. Toulouse had, 
like the University of Paris, before the law of December 9, 1905, of 
separation of church and state, a faculty of Protestant Theology. 
The universities of Bordeaux, Lille, Lyon, Montpellier, Nancy, and 



362 APPENDIX I 

Toulouse are among the most important, by reason of their equip- 
ment and advantages, of the provincial universities. Some of the 
others, however, have in some respects advantages superior to any- 
one of the six just named. 

It is possible, too, that each one of these university centers, by 
reason of its situation, or of particular circumstances, may possess, 
and probably does possess, superior advantages to any other for 
pursuing special branches. Thus, because of the fine laboratories, 
extensive collections, agricultural stations, botanical gardens and 
museums in Bordeaux, Agriculture, Natural Sciences, and Chemistry 
applied to industry are all especially studied. Among the courses 
at the Faculty of Letters serving to differentiate the curriculum from 
that offered by other institutions are found: History of Bordeaux 
and the Southwest of France, Language and Literature of the South- 
west of France, Hispanic Studies. The University of Lille, in the 
ancient capital of Flanders, near the Belgian frontier, possesses very 
fine material as well as intellectual equipment. Among the courses 
at the Faculty of Letters, one will hardly fail to note, because not 
found elsewhere, Walloon and Picardy Language and Literature. 
The situation of the university in the heart of the Walloon district 
is in itself an advantage in pursuing this specialty such as no other 
university possesses. The University of Lyon, in one of the finest 
cities in France, not far from Switzerland, possesses exceptional 
advantages for the study of Archaeology. Industrial and agricul- 
tural Chemistry holds an important place among the sciences. The 
influence of the silk industry, as well as of the metallurgic industry 
of the region, is traceable among the courses offered by the faculty 
of science. The study of Psycho-physiology is one of the specialties 
of this university. In the department of letters a course on the 
History of Lyon is noticeable. The University of Montpellier is a 
most active intellectual center. The Faculty of Medicine, to which 
Rabelais belonged, and added lustre by his efforts in its behalf, still 
retains its ancient prestige. The Jardin des plantes is one of the 
finest in Europe. It contains a great number of rare trees and 
plants. Botany and Natural Sciences are among the most popular 
studies at Montpellier. Moreover, the Comite de patronage des 
etudiants etrangers has recently issued a circular from the Universite 
de Montpellier, announcing that during the winter semester of 
1908-1909, courses adapted particularly to foreign students will 
be offered. The program, embracing subjects in French, Italian, 
Spanish, and Romance Philology, appears very attractive. Among 




THE SORBONNE. AMPHITHEATRE 




THE SORBONNE. PERISTYLE 



EDUCATIONAL ADVANTAGES IN FRANCE 363 

the courses in letters at the University of Nancy, in the ancient 
capital of Lorraine, are to be noted one on German Philology, an- 
other on History of the East of France. 

At the University of Toulouse, in the ancient capital of Langue- 
doc, more attention is given by the Faculty of Letters to the study 
of the Spanish language and literature than elsewhere in France. 
The annual competition on the subjects of poetry and eloquence 
still takes place in Toulouse, pleasantly commemorating the famous 
Jeux floreaux, instituted there in 1323. At the universities of lesser 
importance than those just named, courses in certain subjects will 
be found which do not appear at all elsewhere. Thus at Aix, in 
Provence, not far from Marseilles, the Faculty of Letters offers sev- 
eral fine courses on Provencal History, Language, and Literature. 
The University of Caen, situated in the very heart of Normandy, 
offers a course on Norman Art and Literature, which cannot but be 
of considerable interest to students of art and architecture. 
Grenoble, in the midst of the Alps, not far from Italy, is beautifully 
situated, possessing the warmth of a southern sun tempered by the 
coolness of the mountains. There is an Italian colony in the town, 
and the Faculty of Letters offers a course in ItaHan Language and 
Literature, a subject not found upon the curricula of the other fac- 
ulties of letters, excepting Clermont-Ferrand, which is considerably 
farther away from the immediate vicinity of Italy. The facilities 
for pursuing science, especially geology and botany, at Grenoble are 
very fine. The summer courses, together with the superb natural 
attractions of Grenoble, are beginning to attract thither many for- 
eign students. Through the initiative of the Alliance Franjaise, 
now making a vigorous campaign at home and abroad in the in- 
terest of French language and letters, holiday courses are now given 
in Bordeaux, Boulogne-sur-Mer (in connection with the University 
of Lille), Saint-Malo-Saint-Servan (in connection with the Univer- 
sity of Rennes), and Villerville-sur-Mer. A number of universities 
and schools in France and Switzerland have joined in the move- 
ment either independently or in connection with the AUiance. 
Courses are announced for the summer season of 1909 at Besangon, 
Caen, Dijon, Grenoble, Lyon, Nancy, all provincial university 
centers, at Lisieux, Bayeux (both in Calvados, Normandy), at the 
Institut-Moderne, Marseilles, and at the Lycee for girls in Versailles 
under the direction of Mme. Kahn; also at the universities of 
Geneva, and Lausanne, and at the Academy of Neuchatel, in 
Switzerland. 



364 APPENDIX I 

The University of Clermont-Ferrand, in the capital of the old 
province of Auvergne, in the center of Southern France, like 
Grenoble, is in the midst of the mountains. Clermont is the center 
of a most important volcanic region and possesses unique interest 
not only for geologists and mineralogists, but for geographers as 
well. The University of Dijon, in the town of that name, capital 
of the old province of Bourgogne, offers a course on the History 
of Burgundy; the University of Poitiers, in the old province 
of Poitou in Western France, where famous battles occurred 
in olden times, offers a course on the History of Poitou; the 
University of Rennes, in old Bretagne, offers a course in Celtic 
Language and Literature; the University of Besanfon, in Franche- 
Comte, of which Besanfon was the capital, a course in Russian; 
also one on the History and Geography of Antiquity and the 
Middle Ages, in which epoch Besan^on played an interest- 
ing part. 

It will now be clear that while the provincial universities offer 
courses in law, letters, science, and medicine quite similar to those 
described as given by the University of Paris, they make up in a 
measure for what they lack in variety by offering special courses, 
for which they have advantages superior to any that can be found 
elsewhere. The law-school courses are in many cases broadly edu- 
cational as well as technical. The scientific courses are thoroughly 
practical, as the names of some of them suggest: Industrial Elec- 
tricity, Industrial Chemistry, Industrial Physics. The medical 
schools are the equal in excellence of the schools of law, letters, and 
science. The provincial universities, following the example of the 
University of Paris, are gradually introducing the doctor's degree 
for foreign students into their various faculties. An American 
student who desires to receive this degree as a recompense for suc- 
cessful work in France will have in the future only the perplexity 
of deciding where he can most advantageously spend his time. 

VII. Special Schools for Higher Education. 

It remains to speak of several institutions, some of which are 
not connected with the government, of no less interest to American 
students than those just described. Many of these are termed 
*'ecoleslibres,'7^'&re being used here in the sense of independent, and 
not, as sometimes supposed, of free in the sense of tuition free, 
although such is often the case. 



EDUCATIONAL ADVANTAGES IN FRANCE 365 

First in importance is the College de France, rue des ficoles, over 
the portals of which is seen the inscription Omnia docet. Here 
science and letters in their most advanced stage are taught by more 
than forty of the ablest specialists in France. The late lamented 
Gaston Paris was administrator of the institution, and his col- 
leagues in their specialties are well known to scholars making re- 
searches in hke fields ever3rwhere. Some of the French professors 
whose visits to America or whose writings have made their names 
particularly well known to men of letters in this country are Joseph 
Bedier, Michel Breal, Gaston Deschamps, Louis Havet, Pierre 
Janet, Leroy-Beaulieu, E. Levasseur (who succeeded Gaston Paris 
as administrator of the College de France), A. Longnon, G. Maspe- 
ro, Paul Meyer, Morel- Fatio, A. Reville, Georges Blondel. 

Very similar in its aims is the Ecole pratique des hautes etudes, 
Sorbonne. Over one hundred professors have charge of the in- 
struction. The school is divided into five sections, each comprising 
broad divisions: 1° history, language, and philology; 2° mathe- 
matics and mathematical sciences; 3° physics, chemistry, min- 
eralogy; 4° natural sciences; 5° religious sciences. The most com- 
plete liberty in regard to pursuing one's chosen subject exists. The 
professor meets his students when and where it is most convenient, 
and continues his work with them for as long or short a time as may 
be deemed practicable. Each student may be pursuing some one 
particular part of a subject, in which case the student and professor 
come together by appointment, and carry on the special research 
in whatever manner they may consider most profitable. No ex- 
aminations are given nor are any degrees conferred. Probably no 
school in Europe stands higher in its field or is more widely and fa- 
vorably known than the Ecole pratique des hautes etudes. 

The Ecole des langues orientates vivantes, 2 rue de Lille, is, per- 
haps, one of the best known of the kind. In it are taught the lead- 
ing oriental living idioms. The professors are assisted by native 
teachers. The students pursuing the courses do so for poHtical, 
commercial, or philological reasons. Quite a number obtain po- 
sitions as interpreters in eastern countries. 

The Ecole nationale des chartes, 19 rue de la Sorbonne, founded 
over eighty years ago, is frequented by specialists in archeology, 
philology, history, and diplomacy. They come from all parts of the 
world, attracted by the unrivaled resources of the school. The ad- 
vantages, particularly for the study of paleography, because of the 
abundance of rare manuscripts, are unsurpassed. 



366 APPENDIX I 

The &cole libre des sciences politiques, 27 rue Saint- Guillaume, 
fulfills a most useful mission. Here an excellent preparation can 
be had for the various administrative careers in the government, 
in conformity with the five sections composing the entire program: 
1° interior administration; 2° finance; 3° political and social 
economy; 4° diplomacy; 5° law and history. There are no ex- 
aminations to enter. A course can be taken for two or three 
years. A diploma is given when evidence is shown of good 
ability to investigate problems. There is an enrollment fee of 
$14.00 a year. 

Social doctrines may be profitably pursued at the College libre 
des sciences sociales, 28 rue Serpen te. Of such institutions as the 
Museum d'histoire naturelle, 57 rue Cuvier, where courses are given 
in zoology, anthropology, and kindred subjects; the Ecole nationale 
superieure des mines, 60 boulevard Saint-Michel, for the training of 
mining engineers; the Ecoles des ponts et chaussees, 292 rue Saint- 
Martin, for bridge-builders and constructors; the Conservatoire des 
arts et metiers, 292 rue Saint-Martin, for sciences and their indus- 
trial application, in all of which the instruction is absolutely free, 
nothing need be said other than that they represent the best modern 
types of the kind. Such schools as the Ecole nationale et speciale 
des beaux-arts, 14 rue Bonaparte, for the study of painting, sculp- 
ture, architecture, and allied subjects, and the Conservatoire na- 
tionale de musique et de declamation, 15 rue du Faubourg-Poisson- 
niere, for vocal and instrumental music and the study of the voice, 
will long continue to attract, as in the past, foreigners from distant 
countries. 

It is perhaps needless to say that the mere enumeration of 
special schools that offer the foreign student as well as the native a 
most attractive program of studies, either entirely free or at a nom- 
inal cost, would make a long fist. It must here suffice to note two 
well-defined advantages that American students of art and language 
may profit by, if disposed to make use of them. The American Art 
Association has over two hundred members. Its function is that of 
a club. It gives opportunity for American students and artists to 
meet together informally and enjoy each other's society. The As- 
sociation now possesses fine quarters at No. 2 Impasse Conti. A 
large art library, fine reading rooms, recreation-halls, and a good 
but inexpensive restaurant contribute to the comfort of the mem- 
bers. The club is somewhat like the St. Botolph, in Boston, in that 
art exhibitions are held in the rooms quite frequently. It is well 



EDUCATIONAL ADVANTAGES IN FRANCE 367 

worth while for a student of art, intending to remain a year 
in Paris, to become a member immediately upon arriving. The 
fees are ten francs initiation and twenty francs membership 
annually. 

The second advantage is that offered during the summer 
months by the Alliance Frangaise, 186 boulevard Saint- Germain, 
to students of the French language. Two series of courses are given, 
the first during the month of July, and the second during the month 
of August. Students are able to secure diplomas at the end of the 
course after an examination upon it. The fee for either course, 
which embraces, besides a large amount of instruction, lectures, 
etc., many desirable privileges, is twenty dollars. The Alliance has 
been wonderfully successful in Paris, and hundreds of students and 
teachers pursue these courses yearly. This success has encouraged 
the projectors of the movement, aided by the government, to start 
a similar movement in the nature of a propaganda outside of 
France. The object is to encourage the pursuit of the French 
language and literature and to attract favorable attention to 
France. Some idea of how successful the movement has been in 
this country may be got from the fact that at the present time there 
exist here and in Canada more than two hundred Alliances Fran- 
gaises, or branches, groups, as they are called, of the central organi- 
zation in Paris. Moreover, some of these groups are very flourish- 
ing, the one in Boston, for instance, having annually for several 
years more than four hundred members. This group in particular 
has been very ably managed by Professor de Sumichrast since 
taking charge of its interests in 1900. Lectures and entertain- 
ments in French, all of a high order, are given fortnightly. During 
the years 1901, 1902, and 1903, the Boston group, at its own ex- 
pense, sent over to Paris, each summer, a teacher in the public 
schools to enjoy the advantages offered by the Alliance in Paris. 
It is well to be famihar with the work of the AlUance Frangaise 
when preparing, whether here or abroad, to make a study of French 
Hfe, Hterature, and language. In this way it is quite possible to 
keep abreast of what is going on in a rather extensive circle of 
French interests. Both Frenchmen and Americans of distinction 
are connected with the organization, and directly or indirectly 
may be of signal service to a student. Perhaps the simplest way 
to get posted quickly is to send for the Bulletin officiel de la Federa- 
tion de I'AUiance Frangaise aux fitats-Unis et au Canada, 1402 
Broadway, New York City. 



368 APPENDIX I 

VIII. L'Entente Cordiale. 

It is beginning to be quite evident that the day is past when 
thoughts, ideas, and the possession of truth are national and the 
property of one particular people. The tendency of this generation 
is fast towards denationalization. Foreign methods when proved 
to be better than our own are no longer looked upon askance 
because they are foreign, but are beginning to be adopted; just as 
abroad practical American ideas have found widely a favorable 
reception. The intrinsic value of ideas is an asset too precious to be 
long ignored by any wide-awake nation. 

In 1897, Ferdinand Brunetiere gave a course of lectures in 
French at Johns Hopkins University which were notable and be- 
sides attracted popular attention. He was invited to Harvard 
University, where he gave three lectures on Moliere. The charm 
and magnetism of the man will not easily be forgotten by anyone 
privileged to hear him. Since that time the French lectureship 
fund provided by Mr. James Hazen Hyde of the Class of 1898 has 
made it possible for Americans to pass in review a long line of dis- 
tinguished French men of letters; for not only have these gentle- 
men lectured at Harvard University, but after finishing their course 
there, usually have also lectured in many places in the United 
States and Canada. The distinction of the lecturers and the variety 
of the topics treated has naturally called attention to France, a 
country for which American sympathy has been strong and lasting 
from old colonial days. The following are the names of the eminent 
lecturers who have visited our shores and their subjects: 

1898. Rene Doumic: Histoire du romantisme fran^ais. 

1899. Edouard Rod: La Poesie dramatique franjaise. 

1900. Henri de Regnier: Poesie frangaise contemporaine. 

1 90 1. Gaston Deschamps: Le Theatre frangais contem- 
porain. 

1902. Hugues Le Roux: Le Roman franjais et la societe 
franfaise. 

1903. L. Mabilleau: Idees fondamentales de la politique 
frang:aise. 

1904. A Leroy-Beaulieu, de ITnstitut: Christianisme et 
democratic. 

1905. Rene Millet, ambassadeur: La France et ITslam dans 
la Mediterranee. 

1906. Anatole Le Braz: La France celtique. 



EDUCATIONAL ADVANTAGES IN FRANCE 369 

1907. Vicomte G. d'Avanel: Histoire economique de la 
France. 

1908. Andre Tardieu: La France et les alliances. 

1909. AbelLefranc: Moliere. 

Nearly all of these men have, after visiting us, recorded their 
impressions of American hf e in books that students will have pleas- 
ure in famiHarizing themselves with. This is Ukely to have a 
broadening effect upon their own point of view of a foreign country. 
Moreover, under the auspices of the Alliance Frangaise, or pos- 
sibly, at times, independently, Germain Martin, Jules Huret, 
Andre Michel, F. Funck-Bretano, Louis Madehn, Edmond Rossier, 
Bonet-Maury, Marcel Poete, and other Frenchmen of note have 
lectured in various parts of the United States and Canada. Dis- 
tinguished Italians, Angelo de Gubernatis, NoveUi, GugHelmo 
Ferrero, have also addressed many groups of the Alliance. 

So much activity on this side of the water has initiated a recip- 
rocal movement in France. In 1904-1905, through the generosity 
of Mr. Hyde, who has done so much to promote a good mutual 
understanding between France and America, Professor Barrett 
Wendell, of Harvard University, was invited to deHver a course of 
lectures on American literature at the Sorbonne and at the uni- 
versity towns in France. Students who intend studying in France 
will do well to profit from Professor Wendell's experience by reading 
his book, ''The France of Today." He was followed by Professor 
A. C. CooHdge, and he in turn by Professor George Pierce Baker, 
also of Harvard University. 

Of late years a number of French students have registered in 
our leading universities, and not only pursued courses, but given 
instructions and lectured in French at the university and outside. 
This idea of foreign students coming here to study in our institu- 
tions has been favorably received and encouragement is offered 
them to come. In 1896, for the first time, a fellow of the Univer- 
sity of Paris, Charles Cestre, was sent to Harvard. An interesting 
contribution by him on the French Universities will be found in 
the Harvard Graduates' Magazine for December, 1897. About 
eight years later, in 1903- 1904, a fellowship of the Cercle Frangais de 
rUniversite Harvard with a stipend of $600 was offered by Mr. 
Hyde and has been since then continued annually. The French 
fellow is selected by the Minister of public instruction in France. 
According to the conditions of the fellowship, the young French- 
man is expected to give a certain amount of assistance to the depart- 



370 APPENDIX I 

ment of French and other Romance languages. He is also to be ad- 
mitted to any courses of instruction in the university he is qualified 
to pursue. These young men occasionally assist in the annual pro- 
duction of the Cercle Franjais play. The appointment of the 
American exchange fellow to Paris, to benefit by the fellowship 
offered in return by the French ministry of pubhc instruction, is 
made on the recommendation of the president of Harvard Univer- 
sity. The incumbents have been George Wallace Umphrey, 
1903-4; Robert Bell Michel, 1904-5; Charles Marshall Under- 
wood, 1905-6; Arthur Fisher Whittem, 1906-7; Warren Barton 
Blake, 1907-8; Samuel Montefiore Waxman, 1908-9. The same 
conditions govern the incumbent of this fellowship as those of the 
James Hazen Hyde fellowship offered by the Cercle Frangais. 
The"boursiers,"or fellows from France at Harvard, have been Rob- 
ert Dupouey, 1903-4; to whose article, Americans in French Uni- 
versities, reference has here twice been made; Henri Baulig, 
1904-5, now an instructor in French in Harvard College; Mederic 
Tourneur, 1905-6; Edmond Jean EggU, 1906-7; Jean Marie Gi- 
raudoux, 1907-8; Maurice Chelli, 1908-9. 

About fourteen years ago. Baron Pierre de Coubertin made four 
foundations for the study of French literature; one each at Prince- 
ton, Tulane, the University of California, and Leland Stanford. 
By way of reciprocity, there are now the University of Paris: 
1° The due de Loubat's foundation at the College de France for the 
study of American antiquities. The late Leon Lejeal used to 
lecture in this course. 2° Mr. James Hazen Hyde's foundation at 
the Sorbonne for the study of America, American Ideas and Insti- 
tutions; lectures in EngHsh by the American exchange lecturer. 
3° The proposed foundation by some American bankers and finan- 
ciers at the law-school of the University for the study of the 
History and Outline of American Law; lectures in French, in 
1904-5, by Charles F. Beach, Jr., a noted American lawyer and 
student of economic problems. 

Perhaps one of the best known of all the foreign traveling fel- 
lowships is the Bourse du Tour du Monde, founded by Albert Kahn 
in 1898. This bequest provides for sending around the world 
*'Cinq jeunes agreges de Funiversite," each on a fellowship of 
$3,000. An account of experiences in foreign countries by thirteen 
of these young men during the years 1898, 1899, and 1900, will be 
found in"Autour dumonde, par les Boursiersde voyage del'Univer- 
site de Paris" (Paris, Felix Alcan, 1904). The bookis usefulin giving 



EDUCATIONAL ADVANTAGES IN FRANCE 371 

the American student who studies abroad an excellent French point 
of view. Occasionally one of these graduate Frenchmen remains 
in a foreign country some years, as in the case of M. Louis AUard, 
who taught and lectured a year or more in Laval University, Que- 
bec, and for the past two years has been one of the regular in- 
structors in French in Harvard College. This year (1908) a young 
woman, Mile. Ehchabe, is one of the holders of the Around the 
World Fellowship. Her lectures in different parts of the country 
have been noteworthy. 

A few of the largest and best-endowed institutions of learning 
in this country, such as those already named, are well provided with 
traveUng fellowships. The catalogs of a number of our colleges 
call particular attention to such special advantages; at Boston 
University, for instance, the Ada Draper fund of $25,000, the in- 
come of which is to be apphed " to enable the most meritorious and 
needy student among the young women to be sent to Europe after 
graduation to complete her studies." In this way students, sure 
of their future, are able to concentrate their whole time and thought 
on the main object of their foreign residence. 

Thus, from what has been shown, the signs of the times seem 
to point not only to a mutual desire on the part of France and of 
this country to bind more cordially together the old intellectual ties 
of sympathy that were so strong in the days of Frankhn and Jeffer- 
son, but to a common world understanding that shall ultimately do 
away with intellectual barriers between nations. That a movement 
so thoroughly in accord with the best spirit of the times should be 
fraught with success is the earnest hope of all who desire the moral 
and intellectual advancement, not only of France and America, but 
of all civilized nations. 



Appendix II 



Appendix ir 

Institutions of Higher Learning; 

THEIR Organization, Degrees, 

Requirements, Fees, etc. 

Offices Furnishing Information to Foreign Students. From the 
beginning of the thirteenth century, when the University of Paris 
was founded, till the present day, France has always generously 
extended to the whole world the hospitality of her schools of higher 
learning. This hospitaUty has been eagerly accepted in modern as 
well as in mediaeval times, as is evidenced by an enrollment on 
January 15, 19 13, of 5560 foreigners in the Faculties of the French 
Universities, nearly a seventh of the entire student body. 

In order to emphasize this hospitality and render it concrete, 
the French educational authorities have organized two offices or 
bureaus whose business it is to facilitate in every possible way the 
pursuit of studies in France and to render any service possible to 
the prospective or resident foreign student. These offices are: 
Bureau des Renseignements, at the Sorbonne, and Office National des 
Univer sites et Ecoles Frangaises, 96 Boulevard Raspail, Paris. 
The Bureau of Information pubHshes annually the "Livret de 
I'Etudiant" of the University of Paris, which also contains a 
complete detailed account of all the other institutions of higher 
learning in the capital. The National Office of French Universities 
and Schools pubHshes a Handbook which presents in schematic 
outline a description of the organization, conditions of admission, 
etc., of all the higher schools, not only in Paris, but also in the 
provinces. The information contained in the following pages has 
been reproduced for the most part from these two booklets, which 
should be consulted for further details. Each University also 
publishes a "Livret de I'Etudiant" or "Annuaire" which gives an 
even more detailed account of the particular University and of all 

^[Prepared by Professor C. B. Vibbert, of the University of Michigan. — 
Ed.] 

375 



376 APPENDIX II 

the higher schools in the administrative educational district 
(Academie) in which the University is located.^ 

Each University has also established a committee which seeks 
to promote in every possible way the interests of foreign students 
("Comite de Patronage des etudiants etrangers"). The student 
is strongly advised to supplement the necessarily limited informa- 
tion contained in the following pages by consulting these various 
handbooks, and, in case of doubt on any point, to apply directly 
to one of the two bureaux of information indicated above, or to the 
Deans of the various Faculties or the Directors of the various 
Schools, or to the several Committees of Patronage. 

The educational data to be described for the intending American 
student in France can best be grouped under the following headings: 

I. Organization of the Various Institutions of Higher Learning : 

1. The Universities. 

2. Other Institutions. 

^ For further information upon the Universities of France, and upon the 
educational system, consult the works in the following list, prepared by Pro- 
fessor RoLLO W. Brown, of Wabash College, at the request of the Editor of 
this volume: 

E. Delalain: "Annuaire de I'lnstruction publique." (Librairie Delalain 
Freres, Paris.) This volume not only serves as a directory of the French 
universities, but provides a convenient view of the entire scheme of French 
education. 

L. Liard: "L'Enseignement superieur en France." (Armand Colin, 
Paris. Two volumes.) A very complete and a thoroughly sound historical 
study of French higher education, by the head of the University of Paris. 

H. Vuibert: "Annuaire de la Jeunesse." (Librairie Vuibert, Paris.) 
This volume is indispensable to the American student who wishes to be informed 
on French educational organization. Ordinarily it contains more than a 
thousand pages of well-indexed material. 

Few books have been written in English on French education, and most of 
these have dealt chiefly with the primary (utilitarian) or secondary schools. 
The following volumes will help the student to form a notion of some aspects 
of French educational methods and spirit: 

English Board of Education: " Special Reports on Educational Subjects." 
(Wyman and Sons, London.) Volumes 2, 18, and 24. Volume 2 is devoted in 
part to French universities; volume 18 discusses the primary schools; and 
volume 24 deals exclusively with the secondary schools. 

Frederic Ernest Farrington: "The Public Primary Schools of France." 
(Columbia University Press.) Same Author: "French Secondary Schools." 
(Longmans, Green and Company.) These two books give a complete account 
of French education below the university. 

A. L.Guerard: " French Civilization in the Nineteenth Century," (Cen- 
tury Company.) Chapter VII gives a brief historical view of French education. 
Rollo Walter Brown: "How the French Boy Learns to Write." A study in 
the teaching of the mother tongue. This volume acquaints the student with 
present-day French methods of teaching language and literature. 



INSTITUTIONS, DEGREES, ETC. 377 

II. Degrees, Diplomas, and Certificates for work done in the 
Universities. 

III. Admission to the Universities. 

IV. Credit allowable for Equivalent Degrees in Foreign In- 
stitutions. 



I. Organization of the Various Institutions of 
Higher Learning 

Classes oj Institutions. All institutions of higher learning in 
France may be divided into three great groups, based on the general 
principles of their inner organization: 

I. The National Universities, under the general administra- 
tion of the Minister of Public Instruction, which prepare for and 
confer the main degrees required in France for the practice of the 
learned professions; 

II. (i) Other i\^a/fowa/5c/foo/^, under the general direction of the 
Ministry of Public Instruction or other ministries and administra- 
tions, which are either devoted primarily to pure research or pre- 
pare for the various lines of specialization in the government 
services; 

(2) Independent Institutions, established through private initia- 
tive and supported by private gifts and endowments; the scope 
and variety of the activities of these independent schools is almost 
unlimited. 

I. The Universities. 

There are sixteen French Universities, scattered throughout 
France, each having its seat in the city which is at the same time 
the official center of an "Academic." These "Academies" are 
administrative districts, into which are grouped, for the organiza- 
tion and direction of education, several " departements " under the 
direction of a "Recteur." 

The sixteen French Universities are, besides Paris, the Univer- 
sities of Aix-Marseille, Alger, Besanqon, Bordeaux, Caen, Clermont- 
Ferrand, Dijon, Grenoble, Lille, Lyon, Montpellier, Nancy, Poitiers, 
Rennes, Toulouse. 

These Universities have for the most part had a long and 
glorious past; some of them, as the Universities of Paris and Mont- 
pellier, are among the oldest in the world. On the other hand, the 



378 APPENDIX II 

actual organization of the Universities as it exists today is very 
recent. It dates from a law of July lo, 1896, which, grouping 
together the various isolated and independent Faculties and Schools 
existing at the seats of the various administrative educational 
districts, organized them into Universities. 

The work of the Universities is comprised under the four Facul- 
ties of Law, Medicine, Sciences, and Letters, and the Higher School 
of Pharmacy. However, not every University possesses all of 
these five establishments. But, in whatever University they are 
found, the Faculties or Schools are of the same type and offer 
essentially the same lines of instruction. 

The ''Facultes de Medecine" and the ^'Ecoles superieures de 
Pharmacie" provide complete instruction for the degrees of doctor 
of medicine and registered pharmacist, and also offer full opportu- 
nities for research along these lines. In some of the Universities 
the work along these two lines is combined into one school, the 
so-called "Facultes mixtes de Medecine et de Pharmacie" and the 
*'Ecoles de plein exercice de Medecine et de Pharmacie." Other 
Universities offer only the first three years of studies out of the 
five required for the oflScial degrees in medicine and pharmacy, in 
the so-called "ficoles preparatoires de Medecine et de Pharmacie." 

The "Facultes de Droit" are devoted not only to research and 
instruction in the legal sciences, but also in the economic sciences, 
such as poHtical economy, finance, administration, etc. 

The ''Facultes des Sciences," especially devoted to the mathe- 
matical, physical and biological sciences, offer instruction and 
research in both pure and applied science. 

Finally, the "Facultes des Lettres" give full instruction and 
offer opportunities for research in philosophy, languages, philology, 
history, geography, pedagogy, etc. A certain number have also 
organized for the benefit of foreigners special courses in French 
literature, philology, and phonetics, which are given either during 
the regular school year or during the summer vacation. 

"Instituts'^ and ^'Ecoles.^^ In a number of Universities the 
courses already offered, or the laboratory work already carried on 
has been specially organized and co-ordinated with reference to the 
achievement of certain special ends in pure science or in the applica- 
tion of knowledge to special technical or practical purposes. The 
courses so organized constitute the various "Instituts" and 
*'Ecoles," attached to the various Faculties to which they are 
related. The Universities in which they are organized grant 



INSTITUTIONS, DEGREES, ETC. 



379 



various degrees and diplomas in recognition of the work success- 
fully completed in these special schools. 

In order to present a synoptic picture of the various Faculties, 
Institutes and Schools which are comprised in each University 
today, we have given below a list which is reproduced from the 
Handbook of the Office National des Universites: 



Universite de Paris. 
Faculte de Droit. 
Faculte de Medecine. 
Faculte des Sciences. 
Faculte des Lettres. 
Ecole superieure de 

Pharmacie. 
ficole normale superieure. 
Institut de Chimie 

appliquee. 
Institut aerotechnique. 
Institut de Medecine 

coloniale. 
Institut de Medecine legale 

et de Psychiatric. 
Universite d'Aix-Marseille. 
Faculte de Droit (a Aix). 
Faculte des Sciences 

(a Marseille). 
Faculte des Lettres (a Aix). 
Ecole de plein exercise de 

Medecine et d,e Pharmacie 

(a Marseille). 
Universite d'Alger. 
Faculte de Droit. 
Faculte mixte de Medecine 

et de Pharmacie. 
Faculte des Sciences. 
Faculte des Lettres. 
Universite de Besanqon. 
Faculte des Sciences. 
Faculte des Lettres. 
ficole preparatoire de 

Medecine et de Pharmacie. 



Cours speciaux de fran^ais 
pour les etrangers (Cours 
annuels et Cours de 
vacances). 
Universite de Bordeaux. 

Faculte de Droit. 

Faculte mixte de Medecine 
et de Pharmacie. 

Faculte des Sciences. 

Faculte des Lettres. 

ficole des hautes etudes 
hispaniques de I'lnstitut 
franf ais de Madrid 
(Espagne). 

Institut colonial. 

ficole de Chimie appliquee a 
I'industrie et a 
I'agriculture. 

Institut pratique de Droit. 

Cours speciaux de franfais 
pour l,es etrangers (Cours 
annuels et Cours de 
vacances). 
Universite de Caen. 

Faculte de Droit. 

Faculte des Sciences. 

Faculte des Lettres. 

ficole preparatoire de 

Medecine et de Pharmacie. 

Cours speciaux de franf ais 
pour les etrangers. 
Universite de Clermont- 
Ferrand. 

Faculte des Sciences. 



38o 



APPENDIX II 



Faculte des Lettres. 
Ecole preparatoire de 

Medecine et de Pharmacie. 
Universite de Dijon. 
Faculte de Droit. 
Faculte des Sciences. 
Faculte des Lettres. 
ficole preparatoire de 

Medecine et de Pharmacie. 
Institut pratique de droit. 
Institut cenologique et 

agronomique. 
Cours speciaux de fran^ais 

pour les etrangers (Cours 

annuels et Cours de 

vacances). 
Universite de Grenoble. 
Faculte de Droit. 
Faculte des Sciences. 
Faculte des Lettres. 
Ecole preparatoire de 

Medecine et de Pharmacie. 
Institut franfais de Florence 

(Italie). 
Institut polytechnique 

(Institut electrotechnique 

et Ecole de Papeterie). 
Institut des Sciences 

commercials . 
Institut de Phonetique. 
Institut de Geographic 

alpine. 
Cours speciaux de franjais 

pour les etrangers (Cours 

annuels et Cours de 

vacances). 
Universite de Lille. 
Faculte de Droit. 
Faculte mixte de Medecine 

et de Pharmacie. 
Faculte des Sciences. 



Faculte des Lettres. 
Institut frangais de Londres 

(Angleterre). 
Institut pratique de Droit. 
Institut electrotechnique. 
Institut de Chimie. 
Institut des Sciences 

naturelles. 
Institut pedagogique. 
Cours speciaux de frangais 

pour les etrangers (Cours 

annuels a Lille. — Cours de 

vacances a Boulogne-sur- 

Mer). 
Universite de Lyon. 
Faculte de Droit. 
Faculte mixte de Medecine 

et de Pharmacie. 
Faculte des Sciences. 
Faculte des Lettres. 
Ecole franjaise de Droit de 

Beyrouth (Syrie). 
ficole frangaise d'Ingenieurs 

de Beyrouth (Syrie). 
Institut des Sciences 

economiques et politiques. 
Institut bacteriologique. 
Institut d'Hygiene. 
Ecole de Chimie industrielle. 
Ecole de Tannerie. 
Institut agronomique. 
Cours speciaux de franjais 

pour les etrangers (Cours 

annuels et Cours de 

vacances). 
College oriental. 
Universite de Montpellier, 
Faculte de Droit. 
Faculte de Medecine. 
Faculte des Sciences. 
Faculte des Lettres. 



INSTITUTIONS, DEGREES, ETC. 



381 



ficole superieure de 

Pharmacie. 
Institut de Botanique. 
Institut de Chimie. 
Cours speciaux de frangais 

pour les etrangers (Cours 

annuels). 
Universite de Nancy 
Faculte de Droit. 
Faculte de Medecine. 
Faculte des Sciences. 
Faculte des Lettres. 
Ecole superieure de 

Pharmacie. 
Institut electrotechnique et 
' de Mecanique appliquee. 
Institut chimique. 
Institut de Geologic. 
Ecole de Brasserie et de 

Malterie. 
Institut agricole. 
Institut commercial. 
Institut colonial. 
Institut dentaire. 
Ecole de Laiterie. 
Cours speciaux de frangais 

pour les etrangers (Cours 

annuels et Cours de 

vacances). 
Universite de Poitiers. 
Faculte de Droit. 
Faculte des Sciences. 
Faculte des Lettres. 



Ecole preparatoire de 

Medecine et de Pharmacie. 

Institut pratique de Droit. 

Cours speciaux de frangais 
pour les etrangers (Cours 
annuels a Poitiers et a 
Tours. Cours de vacances 
a Tours). 
Universite de Rennes. 

Faculte de Droit. 

Faculte des Sciences. 

Faculte des Lettres. 

Ecole de plein exercise de 
Medecine et de Pharmacie. 

Cours speciaux de frangais 

pour les etrangers (Cours 

annuels a Rennes. Cours 

de vacances a Saint-Malo). 

Universite de Toulouse. 

Faculte de Droit. 

Faculte mixte de Medecine 
et de Pharmacie. 

Faculte des Sciences. 

Faculte des Lettres. 

Institut electrotechnique. 

Institut de Chimie. 

Institut agricole. 

Union des etudiants frangais 
et espagnols de ITnstitut 
frangais de Madrid 
(Espagne). 

Institut d'Hydrologie. 

Ecole pratique de Droit. 



Methods of Instruction. In all the Faculties and Schools, instruc- 
tion is given, in the first place, by means of "cours pubUcs," the spe- 
cial purpose of which is to set forth, in treating the more general 
aspects of the problems, the actual state and results of the main 
lines of human knowledge. Courses with a like purpose ("cours 
libres") may be offered, on proper authorization, by scholars who 
do not belong to the regular teaching staff of the Universities. 



382 APPENDIX II 

A more technical and intensive instruction is given in the 
"cours reserves," open only to regularly matriculated and enrolled 
students. These courses are supplemented by discussion periods, 
seminaries, and laboratory work. These latter are the most 
important factors in developing the student and training him in 
scholarly methods. 

Finally, the Universities place at the disposition of the students 
libraries, museums, and special collections. 

Academic Year. Vacations and Holidays. The academic year 
begins the first of November and extends to the end of July. 
However, because of the examinations, which occupy nearly the 
entire month of July, the courses come to an end in June. Con- 
sequently, no instruction is offered during the months of July, 
August, September and October, except in the special courses 
organized in some of the Universities in French literature, philology, 
language, etc., for the convenience of foreigners. 

Aside from the summer vacation, all courses are discontinued 
on legal holidays, during the Christmas holidays (from December 
24 to January 2) and during the Easter holidays (fifteen days). 

Administration. Each University is administered by a "Con- 
seil," composed of representatives of each Faculty or School and 
of the "Recteur de lAcademie," who is, de jure, president of the 
Council of the University. In the University of Paris, however, the 
administrative head has the title of "Vice-Recteur," the Minister 
of Public Instruction being ^'Recteur" ex officio. 

Each Faculty or School is administered by a Dean or by a 
Director, elected by his colleagues, and appointed for three years 
by the Minister of Public Instruction. 

Each Faculty or School possesses a Secretary's office, to which 
the student should apply in fulfilling all the f ormaUties relative to 
admission, required courses, examinations, etc. 

II. Other Institutions of Higher Education. 

The institutions of higher learning independent of the Uni- 
versities naturally divide into two great classes: (i) Official institu- 
tions under the direct administration of the State; (2) Independent 
institutions due to private initiative and funds. 

Their organization is as different as their aims. Some are 
devoted primarily to research and to the presentation of the results 




PARIS. THE MEDICAL SCHOOL. ECOLE PRATIQUE 




PARIS. THE MEDICAL SCHOOL. ANATOMICAL BUILDINGS 



INSTITUTIONS, DEGREES, ETC. s^s 

of research; others aim at giving technical instruction in some 
particular branch of learning. Each institution has its own courses 
of studies, its special conditions of admission, etc. 

No attempt will be made here to treat of each of these institu- 
tions; they number more than a hundred. For the purposes of this 
Appendix it will be sufficient to call attention to some of the main 
differences in the conditions of admission, to give a list of the differ- 
ent institutions, and then to single out a few of the more prominent 
ones which may be of special interest to American students. For 
complete information with reference to any of these schools, the 
student is recommended to consult either the Handbook of the 
Office National des Universites or the "Livrets de I'fitudiant," 
issued by the various Universities, which usually contain a de- 
scription of all the institutions of higher learning within the 
administrative educational district C' Academic") of which the 
University is the center. 

Foreign students can usually gain admission to practically 
every one of these higher institutions, if not directly by presenting 
their diplomas and certificates, then through the representations of 
their Ambassador or Minister before the proper French authorities. 
Even though they may not be admitted as regular candidates 
for the diploma, conferred by the school, they can usually attend 
in the capacity of visitors. In case a student is interested in the 
work of some special school, he should not renounce his intent to 
enter till he has received a refusal through his embassy. 

Admission to some of these establishments, as the College de 
France, the Museum d'histoire naturelle, etc., is free of charge and 
without scholastic requirement. Admission to others, as the 
ficole poly technique, Ecole des mines, ficole centrale, is gained 
only on the basis of competitive examinations. 

The following list of institutions of higher education, which 
includes the various Instituts and Ecoles attached to the Faculties 
of the different Universities, is reproduced from the Handbook of 
the Office National des Universites et ficoles Frangaises. The 
institutions are grouped under the heading of the branch of study 
to which they are primarily devoted. 

Etablissements scientifiques et de Hautes Etudes 

College de France, sl Paris, place Marcellin-Berthelot. 
Museum d^Histoire naturelle, a Paris, 57, rue Cuvier. 
JEcole pratique des Hautes Etudes, a Paris, a la Sorbonne. 



384 APPENDIX II 

£,cole Nationale des Charles^ a Paris, d> la Sorbonne. 

JEcole speciale des Langues orientates vivantes, a Paris, 2, rue de 

Lille. 
Ecole du Louvre, a Paris, au Palais du Louvre. 
Institut Pasteur, a Paris, 26, rue Dutot. 
Institut Pasteur de Lille. 
Institut Oceanographique, a Paris, ig^, rue Saint- Jacques. 

Enseignement des Sciences juridiques, economiques, 
politiques es sociales 

Ecole libre des Sciences politiques, a Paris, 27, rue Saint- 

Guillaume. 
Institut des Sciences economiques et politiques de TUniversite de 

Lyon. 
Ecole des Hautes Etudes sociales, a Paris, 16, rue de la Sorbonne. 
College libre des Sciences sociales, a Paris, 28, rue Serpente. 
Faculte libre de Droit de VInstitut catholique de Paris, 7^, rue de 

Vaugirard. 
Facultes libres de Droit, a Angers, Lille, Lyon et Marseille. 
Ecole libre de Droit de Nantes. 

Ecole de Legislation projessionnelle, a Paris, 16, rue de VAbhaye, 
Instituts pratiques de Droit des Universites de Bordeaux, Dijon, 

Lille, Poitiers et Toulouse. 
Ecole de Notarial, a Paris, 12^, rue Notre-Dame-des-Champs. 
Ecoles de Notarial, a Angers, Bordeaux, Dijon, Limoges, Lyon, 

Nantes, Poitiers, Rennes, Rouen et Toulouse. 

Enseignement de la Medecine et des Sciences annexes 

Ecole de plein exercice de Medecine et de Pharmacie de Nantes. 
Ecoles preparatoires de Medecine et de Pharmacie, a Amiens, 

Angers, Limoges, Rennes, Rouen et Tours. 
Faculte libre de Medecine et de Pharmacie, a Lille. 
Institut de Medecine legale et de Psychidtrie de FUniversite de 

Paris. 
Institut de Medecine coloniale de FUniversite de Paris. 
Institut d'Hygiene de FUniversite de Lyon. 
Institut d'Hygiene de FUniversite de Toulouse. 
Institut Pasteur, a Paris, 26, rue Dutot. 
Institut Pasteur de Lille. 

Ecole d^ Anthropologic, a Paris, 75, rue de VEcole-de-Medecine. 
Institut general psychologique, a Paris, 14, rue de Conde. 



INSTITUTIONS, DEGREES, ETC. 385 

Institut psycho-physiologique, a Paris, ^p, rue Saint-Andre- 

des-Arts. 
Ecole franqaise d'Odontologie, a Paris, 206^ boulevard Raspail. 
Ecole jranqaise de Stomatologie, a Paris, 24, passage Dauphins, 
Institut dentaire de TUniversite de Nancy. 
Ecole Odontotechnique, a Paris, 5, rue Garanciere. 
£,cole dentaire de Paris, 45, rue de la Tour-d^Auvergne. 
Ecole dentaire jranqaise, a Paris, 2g, boulevard Saint-Martin. 
Ecoles dentaires, a Bordeaux et a Lyon. 

Enseignement des Lettres 

Faculte libre des Lettres de VInstitut catholique, a Paris, ^4, rue de 

Vaugirard. 
Facultes libres des Lettres, a Angers, Lille, Lyon et Toulouse. 

Enseignement des Sciences 

&ole libre des Hautes Etudes scientifiques, a Paris, 74, rue de 

Vaugirard. 
Facultes libres des Sciences, a Angers, Lille, Lyon et Toulouse. 

Enseignement de la Theologie 

Faculte libre de Theologie de VInstitut catholique de Paris, 74, rue de 

Vaugirard. 
Facultes libres de Theologie catholique d'ANGERS, Lille, Lyon et 

Toulouse. 
Faculte libre de Droit canonique de l' Institut catholique de 

Paris. 
Faculte libre de Theologie protestante de Paris, 83, boulevard 

Arago. 
Faculte libre de Theologie protestante de Montauban. 

Enseignement du Frangais pour les etrangers 

Cours speciaux annuels des Universites de Besanqon, Bordeaux, 
Caen, Dijon, Grenoble, Lille, Lyon, Montpellier, 
Nancy, Poitiers, Rennes et Toulouse, de VInstitut d'Etudes 
franqaises de Touraine, a Tours, et de la Guilde internationale, 
a Paris, 6, rue de la Sorbonne. 

Cours de vacances des Universites de Besan^on, Bordeaux, Dijon, 
Grenoble, Lille (a Boulogne-sur Mer), Lyon, Nancy, Rennes 
(a Saint-Malo), Toulouse, et de VInstitut d^ Etudes franqaises 
de Touraine, a Tours. 



386 APPENDIX II 

Cours de vacances de V Alliance frangaise, a Paris, 186^ boulevard 
Saint-Germain, et de la Guilde internationale, 

Ecoles preparatolres a renseignement 

Ecole Normale superieure, a Paris, 45, rue d'Ulm. 

Ecole Normale superieure d'Enseignement secondaire des jeunes 

filleSy a Si^VRES (Seine-et-Oise). 
£.cole Normale superieure de V Enseignement technique, a Paris, 

151, boulevard de VHopital. 
Ecole Normale superieure d'Instituteurs, a Saint-Cloud (Seihe-et- 

Oise). 
Ecole Normale superieure d'lnstitutrices, a Fontenay-aux-Roses. 
Ecoles Normales primaires d'Instituteurs et d'Institutrices. 

Ecoles Militaires 

Ecole Superieure de Guerre, a Paris, jj, avenue de la Motte- 

Picquet. 
Ecole Poly technique, a Paris, 21, rue Descartes. 
Ecole speciale militaire, a Saint-Cyr (Seine-et-Oise). 
£cole du Service de Sante militaire, a Lyon. 
Ecole du Service de Sante militaire, a Paris, au Val-de-Grdce, 277, rue 

Saint-Jacques. 

£.cole du Service des Poudres et Salpetres, a Paris, 12, boulevard 

Henri-IV. , 1 i at • 

Ecoles de la Marine 

£lcole Superieure de la Marine, a Paris, jj, rue de VUniversite. 

Ecole d* Application du Genie maritime, a Paris, 140, boulevard 
du Montparnasse. 

Ecole Navale, a Brest. 

Ecole du Service de sante de la Marine, a Bordeaux. 

Ecole annexe de Medecine navale, a Brest. 

Ecole du Commissariat de la Marine, a Brest. 

Ecoles des Mecaniciens des equipages de la flotte, a Brest. 

Ecoles d'Hydrographie, a Alger, Bordeaux, Boulogne, Mar- 
seille, Nantes, Brest, Bastia, Dunkerque, Lorient, 
Toulon, Le Havre, Saint-Brieuc, Agde, Granville, Paim- 
POL, Saint-Malo et Saint-Tropez. 

Ecoles d' Enseignement professionnel et technique des ptches mari- 
times, a Boulogne-sur-Mer, Dieppe, Calais, Arcachon, 
CoNCARNEAu, Le Croisic, Fecamp, Croix, Les Sables- 
d'Olonne, Saint-Vaast-la-Hougue. 







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PARIS. THE MEDICAL SCHOOL. READING ROOM 



INSTITUTIONS, DEGREES, ETC. 387 

Enseignement agricole 
Institut National agronomique, a Paris, 16, rue Claude-Bernard. 
Ecole Nationale des Eaux et Fortts^ a Nancy. 
Ecoles Nationales d' Agriculture, a Grignon (Seine-et-Oise). 

MONTPELLIER Ct ReNNES. 

Institut agronomique de I'Universite de Lyon. 

Institut agricole de rUniversite de Nancy. 

Institut agricole de FUniversite de Toulouse. 

Institut agricole de Beauvais (Oise). 

Ecole Nationale superieure d^ Agriculture coloniale, a Nogent-sur- 
Marne. 

Ecole Superieure d^ Agriculture d'ANGERS. 

Ecole Nationale d* Horticulture de Versailles. 

Ecole Nationale d* horticulture et de Vannerie de Fayl-Billot 
(Haute-Mame). 

Ecole Nationale des Industries agricoles de DouAi. 

Ecoles Nationales de VIndustrie laitiere, a Mamirolle (Doubs) et 
a PoLiGNY (Jura). 

£cole de Laiterie de FUniversite de Nancy. 

Ecole de Brasserie et de Malterie de FUniversite de Nancy. 

Institut cenologique de FUniversite de Dijon. 

Ecoles Nationales veterinaires, a Alfort (Seine), Lyon et Tou- 
louse. 

JEcole des Haras, au Pin-au-Haras (Orne). 

Enseignements concernant les Colonies 

Ecole Coloniale, a Paris, 2, avenue de VObservatoire. 

Institut Colonial de FUniversite de Bordeaux. 

Institut Colonial de FUniversite de Nancy. 

Institut de Medecine coloniale de FUniversite de Paris. 

Cours de Medecine coloniale de VEcole de Medecine de Marseille. 

Ecole Nationale superieure d^ Agriculture coloniale de Nogent-sur- 

Marne. 
Ecoles Coloniales d^ Agriculture de Tunis et de Philippeville 

(Algerie). 

Enseignement technique industriel 

Conservatoire National des Arts et Metiers, a Paris, 2g2, rue Saint- 
Martin. 
Ecole Centrale des Arts et Manufactures, a Paris, i, rue Montgolfier. 



388 APPENDIX II 

Ecole Centrale lyonnaise, a Lyon. 

Institut industriel du nord de la France, a Lille. 

Ecole speciale des Travaux publics, du Bdtiment et de Vlndustrie, 
a Paris, j, rue Thenard. 

Ecole d'Ingenieurs, a Marseille. 

Ecoles Nationales des Arts et Metiers de Paris {151, boulevard de 
VHopital), Aix, Angers, Chalons-sur-Marne, Cluny 
(Saone-et-Loire) et Lille. 

Ecoles nationales professionnelles, a Armentleres (Nord), Nantes, 
ViERzoN (Cher), Voiron (Isere). 

Ecole de la Martiniere, a Lyon. 

Ecole Nationale des Fonts et Chaussees, a Paris, 28, rue des Saints- 
Peres. 

Ecole Nationale superieure des Mines, a Paris, 60, boulevard Saint- 
Michel. 

Ecole Nationale des Mines de Saint-Etienne. 

Institut de Geologie de I'Universite de Nancy. 

Institut d^Hydrologie de FUniversite de Toulouse. 

Ecoles des Maitres mineurs d'ALAis et Douai. 

Institut Electrotechnique de I'Universite de Grenoble. 

Institut Electrotechnique de FUniversite de Lille. 

Institut Electrotechnique et de Mecanique appliquee de FUniversite 
de Nancy. 

Institut Electrotechnique de FUniversite de Toulouse. 

Ecole Superieure d'Electricite, a Paris, 12, rue de Stael.. 

JEcole dElectricite et de Mecanique industrielle, a Paris, 50, rue 
Violet. 

Ecole d'Electricite industrielle, a Marseille. 

Ecole pratique d' Mectricite industrielle, a Paris, 53, rue Bel- 
Hard. 

Ecole speciale de Mecanique et dElectricite, a Paris, 20 bis, rue 
Bertrand. 

Ecole Breguet, a Paris, 8i-8j, rue Falguiere. 

Institut de Chimie appliquee de FUniversite de Paris. 

Institut chimique de FUniversite de Nancy. 

Institut de Chimie de FUniversite de Toulouse. 

Institut de Chimie de FUniversite de Montpellier. 

Institut et Ecole de Chimie de FUniversite de Lille. 

Ecole de Chimie appliquee a Vindustrie et d Vagriculture de FUni- 
versite de Bordeaux. 

Ecole de Chimie industrielle de FUniversite de Lyon. 



INSTITUTIONS, DEGREES, ETC. 389 

Ecole municipale de Physique et de Chimie industrielles, a Paris, 

10, rue Vauquelin. 
Institut de Chimie industrielle de Clermont-Ferrand. 
Ecole de Chimie industrielle de Rouen. 
Institut Aerotechnique de I'Universite de Paris, a Saint-Cyr- 

l'Ecole (Seine-et-Oise). 
i^ole Superieure d'Aeronautique et de Construction mecanique, a 

Paris, p2, rue de Clignancourt. 
Ecole Superieure professionnelle des Posies et Telegraphes, a Paris, 

loj, rue de Crenelle, 
^coles Nationales d'Horlogerie de Besan^on et de Cluses (Haute- 

Savoie). 
J^cole de Papeterie de FUniversite de Grenoble. 
Ecole de Tannerie de TUniversite de Lyon. 
Ecole de Brasserie et de Malterie de I'Universite de Nancy. 

Enseignement technique commercial 

^cole des Hautes Etudes commercialese a Paris, 43, rue de Tocque- 

ville. 
Institut des Sciences commerciales de I'Universite de Grenoble. 
Institut Commercial de I'Universite de Nancy. 
Institut Commercial de Paris, 75, avenue de Wagram. 
Ecole Superieure pratique de Commerce et d'Industrie, a Paris, 

7P, avenue de la Republique. 
Ecole Superieure pratique de Commerce et d'Industrie de Lille. 
Ecoles Superieures de Commerce d'ALOER, Bordeaux, Dijon, 

Le Havre, Lyon, Marseille, Montpellier, Nancy, Nantes, 

Rouen et Toulouse. 

Enseignement des Beaux-Arts 

Ecole Nationale et speciale des Beaux- Arts, a Paris, 14, rue Bona- 
parte, 

JEcole du Louvre, a Paris, au Palais du Louvre. 

Ecoles Nationales des Beaux-Arts, a Alger, Bourges, Dijon, 
Lyon, Toulouse. 

Ecoles regionales des Beaux-Arts, a Amiens, Clermont-Ferrand, 
Montpellier, Nancy, Rennes, Rouen, Saint-Etienne, 
Tours. 

J^coles Municipales des Beaux-Arts, a Angers, Avignon, Bor- 
deaux, Caen, Grenoble, Le Havre, Lille, Poitiers. 

&ole speciale d^ Architecture, a Paris, 254, boulevard Raspail. 



390 APPENDIX II 

Ecoles regionales d' Architecture, a Lille, Lyon, Marseille, 

Rennes et Rouen. 
Ecole de Sculpture, a Grenoble. 
£cole Nationale des Arts decoratijs, a Paris, 5, rue de VEcole-de- 

Medecine et 10, rue de Seine. 
jScoles Nationales des Arts decoratifs, a Aubusson, Limoges et 

Nice. 
&ole Nationale des Beaux- Arts et des Arts decoratifs de Bordeaux. 
Ecole Nationale des Arts appliques a V Industrie de Bourges. 
Ecole Nationale des Arts appliques a V Industrie, a Roubaix (Nord). 
Ecole departementale d'Art applique de Bordeaux. 
Ecole des Beaux- Arts et des Sciences industrielles de Toulouse. 
Ecoles regionales des Arts industries , a Reims et a Saint-Etienne. 
Conservatoire National de Musique et de Declamation, a Paris, 

14, rue de Madrid. 
Conservatoires Nationaux et Ecoles Nationales de Musique, a Cham- 

bery, Dijon, Lille, Lyon, Montpellier, Nancy, Nantes, 

NiMES, Perpignan, Rennes, Toulouse, Amiens, Caen, 

DouAi, Tours, etc. 
Schola Cantorum, a Paris, 26g, rue Saint-Jacques. 

Among the schools enumerated above are several, mostly 
located in Paris, to which special attention should be called, either 
since they offer lines of work which are not presented by the 
Universities or since their work extends and supplements the work 
of the Universities. 

College de France. Founded in 1530 by Francis I, in opposi- 
tion to the then mediaevalism of the Sorbonne, the College de France 
has been throughout its history one of the most famous and 
active seats of liberal investigation in the world. Its central aim 
is to contribute to the progress of science by discoveries, research, 
and instruction and finally by special undertakings and publica- 
tions. As at present constituted, it comprises forty-five chairs of 
research, representing nearly all the main lines of investigation. 
In general function it corresponds very closely to our Carnegie 
Institution. 

The courses of lectures are open to the general public without 
any charge. On the contrary, admission to the laboratories is 
granted only to persons authorized by the professors in charge and 
who evidence sufficient preparation. The College de France con- 
fers no degree and grants no diploma. However, each professor 




PARIS. THE PHARMACY SCHOOL. FACADE 




PARIS. THE PHARMACY SCHOOL. 
BOTANIC GARDEN AND LABORATORIES 



INSTITUTIONS, DEGREES, ETC. 391 

may deliver either "Certificats d'assiduite" or "Certificats de 
recherches" or "d'etudes," which are countersigned by the 
Director. 

Museum d'Histoire Naturelle, at 57 rue Cuvier, Paris. The 
Museum has as its object to provide pubHc instruction in natural 
history; but through its instruction and through the investiga- 
tions carried on in its laboratories, it is an institution of pure 
science, of free and disinterested research. It comprises eighteen 
chairs, devoted to the different branches of biological science. 

The courses of the Museum are open to the general public 
free of charge. In order to follow the lectures and experiments, 
it is necessary to enroll at the various laboratories; but no diploma 
is required, and foreigners are admitted on the same conditions 
as Frenchmen. The Museum, like the College de France, confers 
no degree and deUvers no diploma. However, a "Certificat 
d'assiduite" may be given at the end of the year to regular attend- 
ants by the professors whose courses they have followed. 

Ecole Pratique des Hautes JEtudes, at the Sorbonne. This 
school is intended to furnish, alongside the purely theoretical 
instruction of the Faculties, advanced practical work which may 
strengthen and extend it. 

The school is divided into five sections: (i) Historical and 
philological sciences; (2) Mathematical sciences; (3) Physical- 
chemical sciences; (4) Biological sciences; (5) Religious sciences. 
But only the sections of Historical and Philological sciences and 
that of ReHgious sciences are centralized, and, installed at the 
Sorbonne, have a real and autonomous existence. The others are 
constituted by courses and laboratories at the Museum, the 
College de France, and at the Faculties of the University of Paris 
and even of the provinces. 

The courses are open to the public free of charge. No require- 
ment as to age, nationality, or degree is demanded for enrollment. 
But in order to be admitted to a laboratory, it is necessary to obtain 
the permission of the Director. 

The normal course of study is three years. At the end of the 
first year, which is a sort of probation year, the regular attendants 
who have done satisfactory work receive the title of ''Eleves 
titulaires de I'ecole pratique des hautes etudes"; at the end of three 
years, they may, by presenting a memoir, obtain the title of 
"Eleves diplomes." 



392 APPENDIX II 

Institut Pasteur, at 26, rue Dutot, Paris. The Institut Pasteur 
is at the same time a center of research, a school of higher instruc- 
tion, and, in certain of its sections, a medical establishment. It is 
divided into three sections: Section of microbiology; Section of 
serotherapy; Section of biological chemistry. 

In this latter section theoretical and practical instruction is 
offered, comprising courses and laboratory work during three 
months beginning in November. The fees for laboratory work, 
material, and instruction is 250 francs. A "Certificat de presence 
et d'etudes" may be granted to students who have followed regu- 
larly the courses and laboratory work. 

Ecole Libre des Sciences FolitiqueSj at 27, rue Saint-Guill- 
aume, Paris. This is one of the most famous schools in the world, 
in the field of the political, social, and economic sciences. Its 
courses of study comprise all the sciences necessary for the train- 
ing of anyone who would make poKtics his profession or would 
enter upon an administrative career. 

Organization. The courses and lectures are grouped under 
five sections: Administrative section; Economic and Financial 
section; Economic and Social section; Diplomatic section; General 
section (Public law and history). The course of study normally 
requires three years. A supplementary year, comprised of special 
courses, is open to graduate students of the school. 

Conditions of admission. The School receives regularly en- 
rolled pupils or auditors, whether foreigners or Frenchmen. No 
university degree nor any examination is required for admission. 

Fees. Enrollment for the entire normal course of study: 
350 francs a year. Partial enrollment for a single course or for 
one lecture a week: 70 francs a year. Enrollment for the supple- 
mentary year: 250 francs. 

Degree. In each section, a partial examination is held at the 
end of each year and a general examination at the end of the three 
years' course. A diploma is conferred on the candidates who suc- 
cessfully pass these examinations. Fees for the examinations and 
the diploma: 140 francs. 



INSTITUTIONS, DEGREES, ETC. 393 

II. Degrees, Diplomas, and Certificates 
IN THE Universities. 

Scholastic work done in French Universities may be attested 
by certificates of assiduity, or by degrees, diplomas, and certificates. 

There are two great and distinct groups of degrees, diplomas, 
and certificates: (i) those conferred by the State; (2) those con- 
ferred by the Universities. 

(i) The degrees, diplomas, and certificates, conferred by the 
State, grant to those who possess them various prerogatives, par- 
ticularly the right of practising in France certain professions. 

(2) The degrees, diplomas, and certificates conferred by the 
Universities themselves, and in their own name, serve to attest 
studies pursued for which the State has created no formal approval; 
or again they put upon the same studies as those pursued for the 
corresponding degrees of the State a stamp of equal value, without 
conferring the right to practise in France the professions for which 
the possession of the latter is required. As, in general, the condi- 
tions of '^inscription" for the degrees conferred by the Universities 
make it possible to take fuller account of the scholastic work 
already done in other countries, these degrees and diplomas are 
more easily accessible to foreign students. 

I. Certificates oe Assiduity (" Certificats d'assiduite"). 

These certificates are especially useful to foreign students who 
desire to receive credit in the universities of their native country 
for the time they have spent in a French University. They may 
be earned by any foreign student who has been regularly matricu- 
lated and who has taken part in the prescribed work of a Faculty or 
School during at least one semester. 

As the formalities for keeping track of this prescribed work 
vary from University to University and from Faculty to Faculty, 
all students desiring, at the end of their studies, to obtain such a 
certificate are recommended to make this intention known when 
they matriculate at the office of the Secretary of their Faculty. 
They will then receive instructions relative to their various obliga- 
tions. 

A request for a Certificate of Assiduity must be addressed to 
the office of the Secretary of the Faculty at the end of the 
semester. 



394 APPENDIX II 

II. Degrees, Diplomas, and Certificates Conferred 
BY the State. 

These degrees, diplomas, and certificates are those required by 
the State for the practice in France of various professions. 

They will be found enumerated in the following description, 
grouped under the Faculties which confer them, together with an 
indication of the work prescribed and fees required. 

A . Degrees and Diplomas in Law 

The degrees and diplomas of the State, earned under the Facul- 
ties of Law, are the "Certificat de capacite en droit," the "Licence 
en droit," and the "Doctorat en droit." 

Certificat de Capacite en Droit. Open to both French and 
foreign students without any requirement as to degrees or diplomas. 
Prescribed work: Two years of study, evidenced by eight "in- 
scriptions;" examinations at the end of each of the two years. 
Expenses involved: "Inscriptions," 260 francs; fees for ex- 
aminations and certificate, 130 francs. 

Licence en Droit. Open to French students who produce the 
"baccalaureat" or an exemption from the "baccalaureat," and to 
foreign students who can produce the "baccalaureat" or who 
have obtained an equivalence of the "baccalaureat." Prescribed 
course: Three years of study, involving twelve "inscriptions;" 
examinations at the end of each of the three years of study. Suc- 
cess in passing the examinations which close the second year 
confers the degree of "bachelier en droit." Expenses involved: 
"Inscriptions," 390 francs; fees for examinations and diplomas, 
750 francs. 

Doctorat en Droit. The "doctorat en droit" is general, as far 
as the degree is concerned, but the diploma bears an indication of 
one of the two lines of specialization: "sciences juridiques" or 
"sciences politiques et economiques." Conditions of admission: 
Candidates must be "licencies en droit." Foreigners who have 
not obtained the "licence en droit," but who have already gradu- 
ated from a foreign university, may become candidates for the 
"doctorat" on the condition that they obtain an equivalence of the 
"licence." Prescribed work: One year of study, involving four 
"inscriptions;" examinations: two oral examinations and the 
defense of a thesis. Expenses involved: "Inscriptions," 130 
francs; fees for examinations, thesis and diploma, 445 francs. 



INSTITUTIONS, DEGREES, ETC. 395 

B. Degrees and Diplomas in Medicine 

The degrees and diplomas of the State, earned under the Facul- 
ties of Medicine, the ^'Facultes mixtes," and the "Ecoles de plein 
exercice de Medecine et de Pharmacie," are the "Doctorat en 
medecine," the "Diplome de chirurgien-dentiste," and the "Di- 
plomes de sagefemme" (ist and 2nd class), 

Doctor at en Medecine. The diploma of the State of " docteur en 
medecine " is the degree which confers the right to practice medicine 
throughout the entire extent of French territory. Conditions of 
admission: Candidates must present the " baccalaureat frangais" 
and the ''certificat d'etudes physiques, chimiques et naturelles" 
("P. C. N."), granted by a Faculty of Science. No exemption or 
equivalence is admitted. Prescribed course: Five years of re- 
quired studies, involving twenty "inscriptions." CHnical work is 
obligatory during the entire term of study. During the first four 
years it must be pursued at the seat of the faculty or School itself; 
during the fifth year, it may, with the consent of the Faculty, be 
pursued in institutions at the choice of the student either in France 
or abroad. Internes and externes attached to hospitals, who are 
appointed on the basis of competitive examinations may count 
their service as equivalent to the clinical work in medicine and 
surgery. Examinations at the end of each of the five years of 
study. Three clinical examinations. Defense of a thesis. Ex- 
penses involved: "Inscriptions" and laboratory fees, 950 francs; 
fees for examinations, thesis and diploma, 690 francs. 

Diplome de Chirurgien-Dentiste. This diploma is required of 
everyone who wishes to practice dentistry in France. Conditions 
of admission: Candidates must be at least 16 years old and must 
present either the "baccalaureat," or the "brevet superieur de 
I'enseignement primaire," or the "certificates d'etudes primaires 
superieures," or the "diplome de fin d'etudes de I'enseignement 
secondaire des jeunes filles." No equivalence or exemption is 
permitted. Prescribed course: Five years, comprising three years 
of studies and two years of clinical work, involving twelve "in- 
scriptions." The clinical and scholastic work is done, either in the 
Faculties or Schools of Medicine in which dental instruction is 
organized, or in the independent institutions of higher dental 
instruction; e. g., the "Ecole dentaire," the "Ecole odontotech- 
nique," and the "Ecole dentaire frangaise" in Paris. A partial 
exemption from the prescribed course may be granted to foreign 
dentists if they have already obtained one of the French diplomas 



396 APPENDIX II 

indicated above. Examinations: (i) A test of clinical knowledge 
and ability; (2) three examinations, one at the end of each year of 
scholastic work. Medical students who present twelve ''inscrip- 
tions" are admitted to the examinations for the "diplome de 
chirurgien-dentiste," with complete exemption from the first of 
these examinations if they complete successfully the two years of 
clinical work. Expenses involved: The fees in the various in- 
dependent schools of dentistry vary from 1000 to 2500 francs for 
the three-year course; fees for examinations and diploma, 250 
francs. 

Dipldme de Sage-Femme. These diplomas must be produced 
by all women who would practice the art of midwifery in French 
territory. 

C. Degrees and Diplomas in the Sciences. 

The degrees and diplomas of the State, earned under the Faculties 
of Sciences, are the *'Certificat d'etudes physiques, chimiques et 
naturelles" (P. C. N.), the "Certificats d'etudes superieures de 
sciences," the "Licence," the "Diplomes d'etudes superieures de 
sciences," and the "Doctorat es sciences." 

Certificatd^ Etudes Physiques, Chimiques et Naturelles ("P. C. N."). 
Open to French students who present the "baccalaureat," or the 
"brevet superieur," or the "certificat d'etudes primaires supe- 
rieures," or the "diplome de fin d'etudes de I'enseignement secon- 
daire des jeunes filles." Foreign students who have not obtained 
the " baccalaureat " may work for this certificate by obtaining an 
equivalence therefor. However, all students, foreigners as well as 
Frenchmen, who desire, by presenting this certificate, to become 
candidates for the degree of "docteur en medecine" conferred by 
the State, must absolutely be provided with the " baccalaureat 
frangais." Prescribed course: A year of study involving four 
"inscriptions;" examinations at the end of the year. Expenses 
involved: Inscriptions and laboratory fees, 220 francs; examina- 
tion, 85 francs. 

Certificats d'Etudes Superieures de Sciences. The number and 
nature of these certificates vary according to the Universities. In 
the sections devoted to the various Faculties of Sciences in the 
hand-book pubHshed by the Office National des Universities et 
Ecoles Frangaises or in the "Livrets de I'Etudiant" pubhshed by 
each University, will be found a complete list of the certificates 
conferred by each Faculty. Conditions of admission: These 




PARIS. THE SCHOOL OF SCIENCES. 
ONE OF THE BOTANICAL LABORATORIES 




PARIS. THE SCHOOL OF SCIENCES. 
LABORATORY OF BIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY 



INSTITUTIONS DEGREES, ETC. 397 

certificates are open to French students who present the "bac- 
calaureat" or an exemption therefrom, and to foreign students who 
have already obtained the ''baccalaureat" or an equivalence for 
the^'baccalaureat." Prescribed course : One year of study involv- 
ing four ''inscriptions"; examinations comprise a written test, a 
test as to laboratory ability, and an oral test. Expenses involved: 
''Inscriptions," 130 francs; the laboratory fees vary from 40 to 
100 francs according to the nature of the studies; examination 
fee, 35 francs for the first certificate, and 30 francs for each suc- 
ceeding certificate. 

Licence es Sciences. The "diplome de licencie es sciences "is 
conferred, on the payment of a diploma fee of 40 francs, to any 
student who has obtained three of the "certificats d'etudes supe- 
rieures," chosen by him from the list of those which the Faculty 
is authorized to grant. 

Diplomes d' Etudes superieures de Sciences. These diplomas are 
three in number and bear an indication of one of the following lines 
of specialization: Mathematics, Physical sciences, Natural 
sciences. Conditions of admission: No condition whatever as to 
age, "inscription," degree, or nationality is required. Examina- 
tions: (i) Composition of a monograph bearing on a subject 
approved by the Faculty; (2) an oral examination on this work 
and alUed subject-matter. 

Doctoral es Sciences. The "doctorat es sciences" is general, so 
far as the degree is concerned, but the diploma may bear an indica- 
tion of one of the following lines of specialization: Mathematics, 
Physical sciences. Natural sciences. Conditions of admission: 
Candidates must be "licencies es sciences" ("Licence d'enseigne- 
ment") or, if they are foreigners, have obtained an equivalence of 
the "licence." Examinations: Two theses or a thesis and a dis- 
cussion of problems formulated by the Faculty. Fees for the 
examination and diploma: 145 francs. 

D. Degrees and Diplomas in Letters. 

The degrees and diplomas of the State, earned under the Faculties 
of Letters, are the "Licence es lettres," the "Diplomes d'etudes 
superieures," and the "Doctorat es lettres." 

The "diplome de licencie es lettres" bears an indication of one 
of the following lines of specialization: Philosophy, History and 
Geography, Classical Languages and Literatures, Modern Lan- 
guages and Literatures. Conditions of admission: French candi- 



398 APPENDIX II 

dates must present the " baccalaureat " or an exemption therefrom, 
and foreign candidates, if they have not the " baccalaureat fran- 
fais," must have obtained an equivalence therefor. Prescribed 
course: A year of study involving four *' inscriptions;" the ex- 
aminations comprise both written and oral tests. Expenses 
involved: *' Inscriptions," 130 francs; examination fee, 105 
francs. 

Diplome d'Etudes Superieures de Lettres. These diplomas are 
four in number, corresponding to the four following lines of spe- 
cialization: Philosophy, History and Geography, Classical Lan- 
guages and Literatures, Modern Languages and Literatures. 
Conditions of admission: No requirement as to age, "inscription," 
degree, or nationality is demanded. Examinations: (i) Com- 
position of a monograph on a subject approved by the Faculty; 
(2) oral examination on this composition and allied subject 
matter. 

Doctoral es Lettres. The candidates must be "licencies es 
lettres" or, if they are foreigners, have obtained an equivalence of 
the *' licence " (cf . infra). Examinations : Two theses must be pre- 
sented and defended. The first must be written in French. The 
second, which may be a memoir or a critical study, must be written 
either in French or in one of the ancient or modern languages taught 
at the Faculty. It should be, as far as possible, a work of erudition : 
critical bibliography or catalogue, critical edition of an important 
text not already pubHshed or badly published, critical examination 
of or commentary on a document, etc. The subject and plan of 
both the theses must be approved by the Faculty. The fees for 
the theses and the diploma amount to 140 francs. 

E. Degrees and Diplomas in Pharmaceutical Studies 
The degrees and diplomas conferred by the State for pharma- 
ceutical studies are the "Diplome de pharmacien," "Dipl6me 
superieur de pharmacien," and "Certificats d'aptitude a la pro- 
fession d'herboriste." 

The "diplome de pharmacien" is required of every one acting 
as a pharmacist in France. The " baccalaureat fran^ais" is 
absolutely required of all candidates, French or foreign, for either 
of the first two degrees mentioned above. 

Since the number of American students interested in this line 
of work is apt to be much smaller than in the Hues previously 
mentioned, it will be sufficient to refer to the handbook of the 



INSTITUTIONS, DEGREES, ETC. 399 

Office National des Universites or the "Livrets de I'Etudiant" 
of the various Universities for the conditions of admission, courses 
prescribed, examinations and fees incident to each of these 
degrees. 

III. Degrees, Diplomas, and Certificates Conferred 
BY THE Universities. 

As has already been said above, the Universities have 
created degrees and diplomas, either for stamping with formal 
approval and value courses of study to which no degree or diploma 
of the State corresponds, or for rendering it possible for foreign 
students, by receiving credit for their previous foreign studies, to 
obtain diplomas which have the same scientific value as the 
corresponding diplomas conferred by the State, but which do not 
grant the same right to practise in France certain professions. 

Since these degrees and diplomas are created by the Univer- 
sities themselves, the work prescribed and the fees required vary 
from one University to another, even though the names by which 
they are designated are the same. Furthermore, since the degrees 
number nearly a hundred, each with its own requirements, it has 
seemed wise to present merely a list of these degrees and diplomas 
to indicate their variety and scope; and then to single out for special 
consideration a few in which American students would more likely 
be interested. 

In the following Hst, which is reproduced from the Handbook of 
the Office National des Universites et Ecoles Fran^aises (pp. 48- 
52), each degree and diploma is arranged under the head of the 
Faculty which confers it. For a complete statement of the re- 
quirements for obtaining these various degrees, consult the Hand- 
book or the "Livrets de I'etudiant" issued by the various Uni- 
versities. 

A. Degrees and Diplomas for Studies in Law, Politics, 
Economics, and Commerce 

Doctoral en droit: Universites de Paris, Dijon, Grenoble, Lille, 

Lyon, et Nancy. 
Doctorat es lots: Universite de Caen. 
Licence en droit: Universites de Dijon et de Nancy. 
Certificat superieur de capacite en droit: Universite de Grenoble. 
Certificat d' etudes juridiques: Universite de Nancy. 



400 APPENDIX II 

Certificat d^ etudes pratiques de droit: Universites de Bordeaux, 

Caen, Dijon, Lille, Poitiers. 
Certificat d^ etudes notariales: Universite de Lyon. 
Certificat d* etudes des sciences juridiques, politiques ou economiques: 

Universite de Dijon. 
Diplome de VInstitut lyonnais des sciences economiques et politiques: 

University de Lyon. 
Certificat de sciences p males: Universite de Paris. 
Certificat d^ etudes p males: Universite de Montpellier. 
Certificat d' etudes administratives et financier es: Universites de 

Paris et de Toulouse. 
Certificat d' etudes administratives algiriennes: Universite d' Alger. 
Certificat superieur d' etudes administratives algeriennes: Universite 

dAlger. 
Diplomes deludes coloniales: Universite de Nancy. 
Diplome de VInstitut d^enseignement commercial de T Universite de 

Grenoble. 
Certificat d' etudes de VInstitut d'enseignement commercial de I'Uni- 

versite de Grenoble. 
Diplome d'ingenieur commercial: Universite de Nancy. 
Diplome d'' etudes superieures commer dales: Universite de Nancy. 
Certificat d^ etudes superieures commer dales: Universite de Nancy. 

B. Degrees and Diplomas for Studies in Medicine 
and Allied Subjects 

Doctoral en medecine: Universites de Paris, Alger, Bordeaux, 
Lille, Lyon, Montpellier, Nancy, Toulouse. 

Diplome de medecin colonial: Universites de Paris et de Bor- 
deaux. 

Diplome d^etudes medicates coloniales: Universite dAix-MAR- 
seille. 

Diplome de medecine legale et psychidtrie: Universite de Paris. 

Diplome d* etudes de medecine legale et de psychidtrie medicolegale: 
Universite de Lille. 

Diplome deludes psycho-physiologiques: Universite de Lyon. 

Dipldme de docteur es sciences biologiques: Universite de Nancy. 

Certificat d'etudes speciales d'hygiene: Universite de Lille. 

Certificat deludes d hygiene: Universites de Lyon et de Toulouse. 

Certificat d'etudes hydrologiques: Universite de Toulouse. 

Dipldme de chirurgien-dentiste pour les etudiants etrangers: Uni- 
versites de Bordeaux, Lille et Nancy. 



INSTITUTIONS, DEGREES, ETC. 401 

C. Degrees and Diplomas for Studies in the Sciences 

(Pure and Applied Sciences, Mathematics, Physics, 

Chemistry, Biology, Electrotechnic, etc.) 

Doctoral es sciences: Universites de Paris, Aix-Marseille, 
Besan^on, Bordeaux, Clermont, Dijon, Grenoble, Lille, 
Lyon, Montpellier, Nancy, Toulouse. 

Diplome de mathematiques generates: Universite de Lyon. 

Diplome de licencie mecanicien: Universite de Lille. 

Diplome d'ingenieur mecanicien: Universite de Nancy. 

Diplome de licencie physicien: Universite de Lille. 

Brevet d' electricite industrielle: Universites d'Aix-MARSEiLLE et de 
Clermont. 

Certificat d^etudes d* electricite industrielle: Universite d'ALOER. 

Diplome d' electricite appliquee: Universite de Be Sanson. 

Brevet ou certificat d' etudes electrotechniques: Universites de Gre- 
noble, Lille, Lyon, Montpellier. 

Diplome dHngenieur electricien: Universites de Grenoble, Nancy, 
Toulouse. 

Brevet d^ electricien: Universite de Poitiers. 

Brevet de conducteur electricien: Universite de Grenoble. 

Diplome dHngenieur chimiste: Universites de Paris, Bordeaux, 
Lille, Lyon, Montpellier, Nancy, Toulouse. 

Dipldme de chimiste: Universites d' Aix-Marseille, Alger, 
Clermont, Rennes. 

Brevet de chimie industrielle: Universite de Clermont. 

Brevet d^ etudes techniques de chimie industrielle: Universite de 
Lyon. 

Brevet de chimie agricole: Universite de Clermont. 

Dipldme de chimiste agricole: Universite de Poitiers. 

Dipldme de sciences chimiques et naturelles appliquees a V agriculture: 
Universite de Rennes. 

Dipldme d' agriculture: Universite de Besan^on. 

Dipldme d'' etudes agronomiques superieures: Universite de Lyon. 

Dipldme d' etudes superieures agronomiques: Universite de Nancy. 

Dipldme d' etudes d'agronomie: Universite de Caen. 

Dipldme d^ etudes agricoles: Universite de Toulouse. 

Dipldme d' etudes coloniales: Universite de Nancy. 

Dipldme de licencie geologue: Universite de Lille. 

Dipldme d'ingenieur geologue: Universite de Nancy. 

Dipldme de geologue mineralogiste: Universite d'ALGER. 



402 APPENDIX II 

Dipldme d'hydrobiologie et de pisciculture: Universite de Toulouse. 
Certificat d^ etudes superieures de sciences appliquees au genie civil: 

Universite (I'Alger. 
Dipldme d^ etudes superieures aerodynamiques: Universite de 

Nancy. 
Dipldme d^ingenieur horloger: Universite de Besanj on. 
Brevet d^oenologie: Universite de Dijon. 

Dipldme superieur d' etudes oenologiques: Universite de Dijon. 
Dipldme d'ingenieur papetier: Universite de Grenoble. 
Brevet de conducteur papetier: Universite de Grenoble. 
Dipldme d'' etudes superieures de brasserie: Universite de Nancy. 
Dipldme dHngenieur brasseur: Universite de Nancy. 
Certificat d' etudes de VEcole de laiterie: Universite de Nancy. 
Dipldme d^ etudes psycho-physiologiques: Universite de Lyon. 
Certificat de maturite du College oriental de I'Universite de 

Lyon. 
Dipldme d'aptitude a V enseignement {mention Sciences) du College 

oriental de I'Universite de Lyon. 
Dipldme d'' etudes scientifiques du College oriental de I'Universite de 

Lyon. 

D. Degrees and Diplomas for Studies in the Humanities 
(Literatures, Linguistics, Philosophy, History, 
Geography, etc.) 

Doctoral es lettres: Universites de Paris, Aix-Marseille, Be- 
SAN^ON, Bordeaux, Caen, Clermont, Dijon, Grenoble, 
Lille, Lyon, Montpellier, Nancy, Poitiers, Rennes, 
Toulouse. 

Dipldme d' etudes universitaires: Universites de Paris et de Bor- 
deaux. 

Certificat d^ etudes litter aires: Universite de Poitiers. 

Certificat d* etudes frangaises: Universites de Paris, Besan^on, 
Bordeaux, Caen, Clermont, Grenoble, Lille, Lyon, 
Montpellier, Nancy, Poitiers, Rennes, Toulouse. 

Dipldme de langue franqaise: Universite de Dijon. 

Brevet de langue franqaise: Universite de DyoN. 

Dipldme de hautes etudes de langue et de litterature franqaises: 
Universite de Grenoble. 

Dipldme d* etudes superieures de phonetique franqaise: Universites 
de Grenoble et de Lille. 

Certificat de maturite du College oriental de I'Universite de Lyon. 



INSTITUTIONS, DEGREES, ETC. 403 

Dipldme d^aptitiide a V enseignement {mention lettres) du College 

oriental de Universite de Lyon. 
Dipldme d' etudes litter aires du College oriental de FUniversite 

de Lyon. 
Certijicat d' aptitude a V enseignement du franqais a Vetr anger: 

Universites de Grenoble et de Poitiers. 
Certijicat superieur pour V enseignement du franqais a Vetranger: 

Universite de Grenoble. 
Dipldme d^ etudes pedagogiques superieures: Universite de Lyon. 
Dipldme d' etudes psycho-physiologiques: Universite de Lyon. 
Dipldme d^ etudes russes: Universites de Dijon et de Lille. 
Dipldme d^ etudes chinoises: Universite de Lyon. 
Dipldme d' etudes celtiques: Universite de Rennes. 

E. Degrees and Diplomas for Pharmaceutical Studies 

Doctoral en pharmacie: Universites de Paris, Alger, Bordeaux, 
Lille, Lyon, Montpellier, Nancy, Toulouse. 

Dipldme de pharmacien: Universites de Paris, Bordeaux, Nancy. 

Dipldme d'' etudes de pharmacien de i^^ classe: Universite de Lyon. 

Dipldme superieur d'' etudes de pharmacien de i" classe: Universite 
de Lyon. 

Dipldme d* etudes pharmaceutiques coloniales: Universite d'Aix- 
Marseille. 

Two groups of degrees in this somewhat bewildering list will 
prove of special interest to a large number of American students : 
(i) the "doctorats de Funiversite" ("mention Droit, Medecine, 
Sciences, Lettres, Pharmacie"); (2) the "certificats d'etudes 
frangaises," "diplome de langue frangaise," and other degrees 
conferred on foreign students only, for their achievements in 
French language and literature. 

(i) The "doctoral de Vuniversite,^^ which is conferred by the 
Universities themselves, is the degree most often sought by Ameri- 
can graduate students in France. And for two good reasons: 
first, it is declared by the French educational authorities to have 
the same scientific and academic value as the "doctorat de I'Etat," 
and its status in this country is approximately that of the usual 
American doctor's degree; secondly, the latitude permitted to the 
Universities in establishing equivalences between college and uni- 
versity work completed in another country and the French re- 
quirements gives less difficulty in satisfying the technical conditions 



404 APPENDIX II 

for becoming a candidate for the degree. On this point consult 
more particularly what is stated below, under ''Equivalences." 

The ^'doctorat de I'universite" bears an indication of one of the 
five lines of specialization, corresponding to the faculty in which 
the studies are pursued, as Law, Medicine, Sciences, Letters, or 
Pharmacy. Not all the Universities confer the degree in all these 
lines of specialization, even when the University comprises a cor- 
responding Faculty. For example, of the sixteen French Uni- 
versities, two have no Faculty of Law (Besanfon and Clermont- 
Ferrand). Out of the remaining fourteen which possess such 
Faculties, only seven confer the "doctorat de Funiversite, mention 
Droit." 

In tlie following brief description of the ''doctorat de I'univer- 
site" in the different branches in which it is conferred, the attempt 
has been simply to indicate the Universities in which the degree 
is granted, the general requirements, and the range of fees. 

Doctoral de VUniversUe, mention Droit. Conferred by the 
Universities of» Paris, Caen, Dijon, Grenoble, Lille, Lyon, and 
Nancy. Open to foreign students only who present the French 
diploma of "licence en droit," or who obtain from the Faculty, 
on the basis of diplomas or degrees earned abroad, an equivalence 
therefor. The term of study required is one year, except in the 
Universities of Caen and Lille where it is two years. The prepara- 
tion and defence of a thesis, and oral (sometimes also written) 
examinations on problems or subject matter indicated in advance 
by the Faculty. The total fees for matriculation or "inscriptions," 
examinations, thesis, and diploma vary from i6i to 380 francs, 
according to the University. 

Doctoral de rUniversite, mention Medecine, Conferred by the 
Universities of Paris, Alger, Bordeaux, Lille, Lyon, Montpellier, 
Nancy, Toulouse. Open to foreign students only who have 
obtained an equivalence of the " baccalaureat de I'enseignement 
secondaire." The prescribed course of study of five years, the 
examinations and the fees are the same as for the corresponding 
degree conferred by the State. Those who have already fulfilled 
abroad some of the requirements may be given credit for it in the 
French curriculum ("equivalence de scolarite"). 

Doctoral de rUniversite, mention Sciences. Conferred by the 
Universities of Paris, Aix-Marseille, Besanfon, Bordeaux, Cler- 
mont-Ferrand, Dijon, Grenoble, Lille, Lyon, MontpelHer, Nancy 
and Toulouse. Open to both French and foreign students who 




PARIS. THE LAW SCHOOL. FACADE 




PARIS. THE LAW SCHOOL. READING ROOM 



INSTITUTIONS, DEGREES, ETC. 405 

present two or three "certificats d'etudes superieures de sciences 
d'Etat," or other degrees and diplomas judged by the Faculty to 
be equivalent. The preparation and defence of a thesis and oral 
(sometimes written) examinations on problems or subject matter 
indicated in advance by the Faculty. The term of study required 
is one year, except at the University of Montpellier where it is 
two years. The fees for matriculation, examinations, thesis, and 
diploma vary from 80 to 180 francs. In addition to this, labora- 
tory fees run from 200 to 800 francs, according to the line of 
work. 

Doctor at de rUniversite, mention Lettres. Conferred by the 
Universities of Paris, Aix-Marseille, Besanfon, Bordeaux, Caen, 
Clermont-Ferrand, Dijon, Grenoble, Lille, Lyon, Montpellier, 
Nancy, Poitiers, Rennes, Toulouse. Open to any French or 
foreign student who presents the "licence es lettres," or other 
degrees or diplomas judged equivalent or otherwise sufficient by 
the Faculty. The required term of study is usually two years, 
one of which must be passed in residence at the University where 
the degree is sought, while the other may be spent in another 
French university, in some cases even in a foreign university. 
However, Bordeaux, Montpellier, Nancy, and Toulouse require 
only one year of study, while Rennes requires three. The prepara- 
tion and defence of a thesis and an oral examination on problems 
or subject matter indicated in advance by the Faculty. The 
fees for matriculation, examination, thesis, and diploma vary from 
100 to 200 francs. 

Doctorat de rUniversite, mention Pharmacie. Open to French 
students who present the"dipl6me de pharmacien,"and to foreign 
students who obtain by examination the "certificat d'etudes de 
pharmacie chimique et de toxicologie" and the "certificat de 
pharmacie galenique et de matiere medicale," or who present 
degrees and diplomas recognized as equivalent. The term of 
study is one year. Preparation and defence of a thesis. The 
fees for matriculation, laboratory, examination, and thesis vary from 
530 to 730 francs. 

(2) "Certificats d'etudes Frangaises/^ ^'Diplome d'etudes fran- 
gaises," etc. Open only to foreigners, without any requirement as 
to degrees or titles. The term of study is usually one semester at 
least. The fees are usually 30 francs for matriculation and from 
20 to 50 francs for the examination. All the French Universities 



4o6 APPENDIX II 

(except Aix and Alger) offer courses leading to these certificates. 
At a number of Universities summer schools during July and 
August have been organized in connection with the elaborate 
courses in French language, literature, and phonetics established 
by the Alliance fran^aise. Work done in these summer courses is 
often accepted in at least partial fulment of the requirements for 
these certificates. For full information concerning these summer 
courses in the Universities and in the various schools under the 
direction of the Alliance frangaise, consult the " Guide illustre de 
I'etudiant etranger a Paris et en France," published under the 
direction of the Alhance at the Librairie Larousse, and the *' Bulle- 
tin officiel de la Federation de TAlUance frangaise aux £tats-Unis 
et au Canada," 1420 Broadway, New York City. 



III. Admission to the Universities. 

The student who seeks to enter any French University may be 
admitted: (i) simply as a matriculated student; (2) as a student 
enrolled {inscrit) as a candidate for a definite degree or diploma; 
(3) as a pupil (eleve) in an Institute or School attached to a Uni- 
versity. 

Since the conditions of admission to the Institutes and Schools 
vary somewhat from one to another, the necessary indications 
pertaining thereto should be sought in the Handbook of the 
Office National des Universites et ficoles franjaises, or in the 
*'Livrets de I'Etudiant" issued by the Universities themselves. 

Since, on the contrary, the regulations governing matriculation 
and enrollment (inscription) are common to all the Universities, 
these have been grouped together in the following description. 

1. Matriculation. 

The necessary, but adequate, condition for being admitted to 
follow the courses and discussions of a University, to use its 
libraries, collections, and instruments of work of every sort, is 
Matriculation, which implies being registered in due form on the 
books of a Faculty or School of the University. 

Matriculation makes one a student and confers the right to 
follow the instruction, not only of the Faculty or School in which 
one is matriculated, but also of the various Faculties or Schools 
which make up the University. 



INSTITUTIONS, DEGREES, ETC. 407 

It is the only formality required of students, and particularly 
foreign students, who seek at the French Universities only a 
cultural education, without working for a degree or diploma. 
However, for certain degrees conferred by the Universities them- 
selves (which will be indicated further on), mere matriculation 
confers the right to take the examinations leading to these 
degrees. 

The student may matriculate at any time. Matriculation 
holds good for the entire year, but must be renewed at the begin- 
ning of each new academic year. 

If, during the course of the year, the matriculated student 
wishes to change to another University, he must matriculate again 
in the new University. 

Matriculation Fees. The uniform fee for matriculation is 
thirty francs a year. However, if the student pursues laboratory 
work, he must not only obtain the consent of the director of the 
laboratory, but also pay the special laboratory fees. These fees 
vary from Faculty to Faculty and from laboratory to laboratory. 
Information as to the amount of these fees can be obtained by 
applying directly to the office of the Secretary of the Faculty or 
School. 

Necessary Formalities. Matriculation must be sought by the 
candidate in person at the office of the Secretary of the Faculty or 
School whose instruction he wishes to follow. It cannot be sought 
by correspondence or by proxy. 

The student who wishes to matriculate must estabUsh his 
identity and prove that his previous studies qualify him to follow 
with profit the instruction of the Faculty or School. 

The student from the United States must present: (i) a pass- 
port, countersigned and sealed ("vise") by the French consul of 
the region whence he comes, or an affidavit hkewise certffied by the 
consul; (2) a diploma or certificate attesting his previous studies 
likewise certified by the consul; (3) a receipt indicating that he has 
declared a residence in France ("declaration de residence").^ 
The documents indicated under i and 2 should be accompanied 
by a certified translation either by the French consul who counter- 
signs them or by a legaHzed translator in France. 

1 This declaration must be made by the foreign student within fifteen days 
after his arrival in France. It is made in Paris at the "Prefecture de Police, 
Bureau des Etrangers," i, rue de Lutece, and, in the provinces, at the city-hall 
of each city. The receipt for this declaration is delivered free of charge. 



4o8 APPENDIX II 

In the absence of any certificate or diploma of previous studies, 
the right to matriculate may be granted by the Dean or Director 
to either French or foreign students whose previous studies are con- 
sidered adequate. 

II. Enrollments ("Inscriptions")- 

Enrollment ("inscription") is the formality required of students 
who seek to obtain a degree or diploma, and especially a degree or 
diploma conferred by the State. 

It attests the regularity with which the studies in view of ob- 
taining a degree or diploma are pursued. Enrollment must be 
renewed every three months. Every degree or diploma requires 
a certain determinate number of enrollments which fix the minimum 
duration of the required studies. 

Enrollment implies the right and formality of matriculation. 
An enrolled student is, ipso facto, matriculated without having to 
pay the special fee of matriculation, and enjoys all the rights which 
the latter confep. 

Enrollments must be made at dates which vary from Faculty 
to Faculty, but which are always announced on the bulletin 
boards. The first "inscription" must be made at the beginning 
of the school year, and at the latest before the first of December. 

The student must keep up his "inscriptions "successively, with- 
out interruption, at the dates'fixed. In case of delay or interrup- 
tion, the Dean or Rector may, upon special demand and for good 
reasons, authorize the student to make up the required "inscrip- 
tions" which are in arrears so that he may continue his studies 
under regular normal conditions; provided that in each case the 
delay does not exceed the legal limits. 

Since the student must enroll every three months, he may, 
during the course of the school year, pass from one University to 
another, conserving all the benefits and privileges conferred by the 
enrollments already made. In this case he should request the 
Secretary of the Faculty in which he is enrolled to transfer his 
record to the Faculty in which he wishes to enroll. This transfer 
is granted in all cases where it is compatible with the special condi- 
tions of residence required for the degrees or diplomas which 
the student seeks. 

Fees for ^^ Inscriptions.''^ The fee for enrollment every three 
months is thirty francs, to which is added a library fee of two and 
a half francs. 



INSTITUTIONS, DEGREES, ETC. 409 

Enrollment with a view to obtaining any degree or diploma 
requiring laboratory work involves the payment of special labora- 
tory fees. 

With a view to furnishing preparation for certain diplomas or 
special certificates, the Universities have created special instruc- 
tion and means of research, for the use of which special fees are 
required. 

The paynient of the fees of enrollment pertaining to a certain 
degree or diploma does not release one from paying the fees of 
enrollment pertaining to any other degree or diploma sought at 
the same time. The only exception made concerns students 
enrolled for the "licence en droit " who may also be enrolled for the 
''licence es lettres" without having to pay fees anew. In like 
manner the students enrolled for the "doctorat en medecine" or 
the "diplome de pharmacien" may be enrolled without further 
charge at the Faculty of Science for the "certificats d'etudes 
superieures;" but the reciprocal favor is not granted to students 
enrolled for the '' licence es lettres" or the "certificat d'etudes 
superieures de sciences." 

Enrollment must be requested by the candidate in person at the 
office of the Secretary of the Faculty or School in which he wishes 
to begin or pursue his studies. It cannot be sought by corre- 
spondence or by proxy. 

Formalities Required for ^^ Inscription.^^ In order to enroll for 
the first time, the French or foreign student must, on the one hand, 
establish his identity, and, on the other hand, prove that his 
previous studies have prepared him to undertake the work which 
will permit him to obtain the degree or diploma which he seeks. 

The student from the United States who is beginning his studies 
in France ought to present, when enrolling for the first time: 
(i) a passport countersigned and sealed ("vise") by the French 
consul of the region from which he comes, or an affidavit likewise 
certified by the French consul; (2) the "diplome de bachelier fran- 
jais"^ or, in lieu of this, a degree or diploma which has been 
declared equivalent to, or a substitute for, the "diplome de bache- 
lier;" (3) a receipt indicating that he has declared a residence in 
France. 

^ The "diplome de bachelier franf ais" or "baccalaureat de renseignement 
secondaire" is the certificate delivered to the French student who has passed 
a difficult State examination at the completion of his studies in the secondary- 
school system. In general function it corresponds to our High-school or prep- 
aratory school diploma; but it represents a much more arduous course of study. 



4IO APPENDIX II 

IV. Credit Allowable for Equivalent Degrees 
OF Foreign Institutions. 

The foreign student who seeks to continue in France the 
advanced studies which he has begun in his own country, and which 
are already certified by examinations and by the possession of a 
diploma, may obtain credit for this advanced work. He may be 
granted, not only an equivalence of the French degree of "bac- 
calaureat" or of any other degree, but also a reduction of the 
scholastic requirements, such as a reduction of the number of 
*' inscriptions" required and exemption from certain examinations. 

To make it possible for foreign students to begin their higher 
studies in French Universities or to continue in France the ad- 
vanced work they have already begun in their own country, the 
Minister of Public Instruction has decreed that equivalences 
may be established between French degrees and diplomas and 
corresponding foreign degrees and diplomas. 

The establishment of an equivalence is most often requested 
in the case of the French " baccalaureat de Tenseignement secon- 
daire" or "diplome de bachelier," which is required in order to 
enter upon studies in law, medicine, science, letters and pharmacy, 
in the corresponding Faculties or Schools of the Universities; but, 
to foreigners who have already completed in their native country 
higher studies certified by degrees and diplomas, may also be 
granted an equivalence of the ''licence en droit," "licence es 
sciences," and " licence es lettres," in order to enroll as candidates 
for the "doctorat en droit," the "doctorat es sciences," and the 
^'doctorat es lettres" respectively. 

In no case, however, does the establishment of an equivalence 
confer the right to the corresponding degree. For example, even 
in case a foreign student has had some degree or diploma obtained 
in his own country declared equivalent to the French "bacca- 
laureat," he does not become thereby a French "bachelier," nor 
can he assume this title; he acquires only the eligibility to the next 
higher diploma or degree which the equivalence previously granted 
has made it possible for him to seek and obtain after passing the 
required examinations. 

In determining just what diplomas, titles, and degrees shall be 
equivalent in the case of students from the United States, the 
Minister of Public Instruction has proposed to recognize as a matter 
of course the first-rank institutions as graded by the Carnegie 



INSTITUTIONS, DEGREES, ETC. 411 

Foundation.^ Any American student presenting one of these di- 
plomas will be admitted as of coiurse in full standing to any French 
University. Diplomas from other institutions require special 
action in each case, but may on the facts of the case be sufficient. 

Interpreted in terms of the equivalences most likely to be 
sought by students from the United States, this would seem 
to signify that the degrees and diplomas of Bachelor of 
Arts, Bachelor of Laws, and Bachelor of Science of approved 
American colleges and universities will thus admit to candidacy, 
presumably for the " doctorat es lettres," the "doctorat en droit," 
and the "doctorat es sciences," conferred hy the State, and cer- 
tainly for the three doctor's degrees conferred by the Universities 
in Law, Science, and Letters. They do not admit to regular en- 
rollment for the *'doctorat en medecine," ^'pharmacien," and 
*'chirurgien-dentiste" conferred by the State; and, for the doctorate 
conferred by the Universities in Medicine and Pharmacy, no Ameri- 
can substitute for the French preHminary degrees can be accepted 
without special permission from the Minister of Public Instruc- 
tion. 

Fees, Formerly, whenever an equivalence was estabHshed 
between a French and a foreign degree or diploma, the student 
benefiting thereby was required to pay all the fees pertaining to 
the original French degree or diploma for which an equivalence 
had been granted. Sometimes these fees amounted to as much 
as twelve hundred francs. By a new decree of the Minister of 
PubHc Instruction, dated January 18, 1916, this old requirement 
is abohshed. Foreign students are now required to pay only the 
fees corresponding to the studies actually undertaken and to the 
degrees actually obtained. 

Admission to Advanced Standing ("Equivalences de 
scolarite"). — ^Admission to advanced standing aims at giving such 
recognition to the studies already completed in a foreign country in 
any special line of work that foreigners may continue in France 
the studies which they have begun elsewhere. It may assume 
the form either of a reduction of the term of residence required, or 
the privilege of making up all at once as many "inscriptions" as 
the duration and nature of the studies already completed may 
warrant, or exemption from certain examinations. 

* A list of 119 institutions, representing those whose B. A. or B. S. degrees 
stand highest in grade, was printed in the 19 13 Proceedings of the Association 
of American Universities. 



412 APPENDIX II 

Requests for admission to advanced standing should be ad- 
dressed to the Minister of Public Instruction on a special sheet of 
paper, bearing stamps to the value of sixty centimes. They must 
be accompanied by all documents which bear upon or support the 
request. These documents must be translated into French by a 
legalized translator. Finally, they must be dehvered to the office 
of the Secretary of the Faculty in which the student wishes to 
enroll. 



Appendix III 



Appendix Iir 

Practical Suggestions to the Intending 
Graduate Student 



In the preceding Appendix the attempt has been made simply 
to set forth as concisely and exactly as possible the technicalities 
involved in entering upon the courses and obtaining the degrees 
of the French institutions of higher education. However, a state- 
ment of these technicalities is not likely to answer all the questions 
which may arise in the mind of the American student who intends 
to study in France. Consequently, it has seemed wise to devote 
a few words of explanation to some of the other problems which the 
student is almost sure to encounter: such problems as the choice of 
a university; the opportunities for association with other students 
in clubs and societies; the facilities for acquiring the French lan- 
guage; summer schools; the French doctor's degree conferred by the 
Universities; the doctor's thesis; the relation of the French degrees 
conferred by the State to our American degrees; general living ex- 
penses; etc. 

Some of these subjects have been adequately treated in various 
works, setting forth the opportunities and advantages of study in 
France. Aside from the handbook of the "Office national des 
Universites," the "Livrets de I'etudiant,'* and the two booklets 
published by the Alliance Frans:aise already mentioned in Appen- 
dix II, the student is advised to consult the following books and 
articles: **The Universities of France: A Guide for American 
Students," published in 1899 by the Franco-American Committee, 
87, boulevard Saint Michel, Paris; "French University Degrees," 
published by the "Comite de patronage des etudiants etrangers," 
at the Sorbonne, Paris, 2nd edition, 1910; "Conseil aux 
Americains" by Professor Robert Dupouey, in the University of 
California Chronicle, Vol. IX, No. 4, 1907; this latter is a sum- 
mary in English of a longer treatment in French which appeared in 

* [Prepared by Professor C. B. Vibbert, of the University of Michigan. — Ed.] 



4i6 APPENDIX III 

1907 in the ''Echo des Deux Mondes," a French periodical pub- 
lished in Chicago. 

Choice of a University. — The student who intends to study in 
France quite naturally plans at least to begin his sojourn in Paris. 
And rightly so if he takes into account only the wealth of intellectual 
opportunities offered by the capital. However, few American 
students are prepared, on first arriving in France, to take immediate 
advantage of these opportimities. Consequently, should he raise 
the pertinent questions as to the most expeditious and normal 
manner of orienting himself in French life, of acquiring that perfect 
facility in the use of the language which all effective university 
work requires, of obtaining a correct and sympathetic understanding 
of French institutions, manners, customs, and ideals, he will decide 
to take up his residence at first in a provincial town and to enter 
upon his work in a provincial university, only settling in Paris 
after he has become fully oriented in France. In this decision he 
will find that nearly all Americans who have pursued serious studies 
in France, as well as French educators themselves, will concur. 

The claims of the provincial university have been very forcibly 
stated by M. Steeg, a former Minister of Public Instruction, in 
these words: "There is every advantage for the foreign student 
entering into French life to begin his sojourn elsewhere than in 
Paris. It is so much easier for him to adapt himself to his environ- 
ment. He will be less likely to be distracted from his studies. He 
will come into more direct contact with his instructors and with 
his fellow students. Especially will he find that he can carry on his 
laboratory work and all sorts of practical work to better advantage. 
A foreigner who goes directly to Paris to study loses a great deal 
of time simply in becoming oriented in the metropolis and even 
in the Faculties. The residence in the capital is genuinely profi- 
table only for those who settle there for the latter part of their 
sojourn in France." 

And is not this counsel essentially what we would give to a 
foreign student coming to this country to study? Scarcely would 
we recommend him to settle in New York City, attempt to acquire 
there the English language, seek to adapt himself to the complex 
life of our cosmopoHtan city, and judge of our institutions, customs, 
manners, and ideals in the fight thereof. To the unoriented foreign 
student, Paris presents essentially the same limitations as New York 
City. The fear, sometimes expressed by students, lest they ac- 



PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS 417 

quire some pronunciation other than the correct Parisian French, 
is scarcely well grounded. The French spoken in university circles 
outside of Paris is apt to be quite as correct as that heard in the 
capital itself, much more correct than the greater part of the or- 
dinary French of the Paris streets. 

Aside from offering a greater simplicity, geniaUty, and intimacy 
of life than that of Paris, some of the provincial universities pre- 
sent great natural beauty of environment and the most varied 
attractions of out-of-door life. Universities like Grenoble, Cler- 
mont-Ferrand, Montpellier, Toulouse, and Besanfon rival in the 
beauty of their surroundings and picturesqueness Heidelberg or 
lena, Oxford or St. Andrews. Within recent years out-of-door 
sports have undergone a marked revival in the provincial univer- 
sities, as is evidenced by the wide-spread organization of clubs for 
the encouragement of sports. Some of these students' athletic 
clubs, as the Bordeaux-Etudiants-Club and the Stade toulousian, 
have well-equipped club-houses and athletic fields. 

The University Organizations Designed to Aid Foreigners, 
Students' Clubs and Associations, etc, — "Comites de patronage 
pour les etudiants etr anger s.^^ — Every French university has a 
Committee of patronage for foreign students which stands ever 
ready to offer any advice or information with reference to 
university studies, instruction in the French language, general 
conditions of hving (board, lodgings, pension in private families, 
etc.), or other difficulties which may confront the foreign student. 
After determining to settle at a particular university, the 
American student should communicate immediately with the 
local "Comite de patronage." The office of the Committee 
is usually located in one of the university buildings and is easily 
accessible. 

^^ Consuls universitairesy — Some of the universities have ap- 
pointed so-caUed "Consuls universitaires," each of whom acts as 
the director of studies and general counsellor of all the students 
who speak the same language. The University of Bordeaux 
has been especially successful in the development of this system. 
The student should feel quite free to consult his University Coim- 
sellor on any difficulties which arise. 

^^Associations generates des etudiants et etudiantesJ^ — Every 
French university now has its general Students' Association for 
men, similar in its organization, aims, and advantages offered to our 



4i8 ' APPENDIX III 

well-known students' clubs, such as the Harvard Union at Cam- 
bridge, Houston Hall at the University of Pennsylvania, and the 
Reynolds Club at the University of Chicago. Some of these 
"Associations generales" have sumptuous club-houses and excel- 
lent faciUties of every kind. The most perfectly equipped is the 
new home of the "Association generale" of Paris, located at Nos. 
13 and 15, rue de la Bucherie, at the very center of the old Latin 
Quarter. It offers comfortable lounging, reading and study rooms. 
The library numbers more than 40,000 volumes, grouped together 
in special sections for the convenience of the students of the different 
Faculties and Schools. All the principal newspapers and periodi- 
cals, literary, scientific and general, whether French or foreign, are 
kept on file. Its members enjoy certain concessions, such as 
reductions in the price of theatre tickets, books, periodicals, and 
even of many of the ordinary necessities of life. In cases of neces- 
sity the Association also aids its members by loaning them money 
and obtaining for them medical attention. It also furnishes 
French teachers, translators, and companions for foreign students, 
and runs an employment bureau for the benefit of students who 
must needs help themselves. 

Any student, whether a Frenchman or a foreigner, who is reg- 
ularly enrolled in one of the Faculties of the University or in one of 
the other institutions of higher learning in Paris, is eligible for 
membership. The annual dues are 18 francs. 

Though the Students' Associations in the provincial universi- 
ties cannot always offer as elaborately equipped club-houses as 
those found in Paris, still they are the active centers of the student 
life. The American student, wherever he may settle, should iden- 
tify himself with the local Association and profit by the advantages 
it offers, not only in the way of good-fellowship, but also in co- 
operating with his fellow-students in the common intellectual and 
moral ideals of the University. In this way he will best enter into 
and appreciate the real life of France. 

Associations for women students, similarly organized and 
equipped, have been established in most of the French universities. 
The "Association generale des etudiantes" of the University of 
Paris is comforably established at No. 55, rue Saint- Jacques. 
In addition to offering parlors, reading rooms, a general information 
bureau, an emplo)rment bureau and free medical service, it has 
established a Women's Co-operative Restaurant where meals and 
afternoon tea are served to members at very moderate prices. 




LYON. THE UNIVERSITY. MAIN BUILDING 




TOULOUSE. THE FACULTY OF SCIENCES 



PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS 419 

Clubs with a religious purpose. — ^There are also a number of other 
Students' Clubs, especially in Paris, which not only offer many of 
the same advantages as the General Associations of Students, but 
are also organized with reference to certain specific ends and offer 
special opportunities to students interested in these ends. Such 
are the ''Association generale des fitudiants CathoUques de Paris,'* 
18, rue du Luxembourg, open to all Catholic men enrolled in the 
higher schools of Paris, and the ''Association des Etudiants 
Protestants," 46, rue de Vaugirard, open similarly to all Protestant 
men. There is also a club for women, organized on similar lines, 
the "Association chretienne d'Etudiantes," 67, rue Saint- Jacques, 
which is open to any woman student without any restriction as to 
faith or creed. 

American Students^ Clubs, — There are in Paris a number of 
clubs, which have been organized primarily by generous Americans, 
and provide admirably for the interests of American women 
students. Among these are the Students' Hostel, 93, boulevard 
Saint-Michel, which has a club-house admirably equipped in every 
respect, including an infirmary; the American Girls' Club, rue 
de Chevreuse, very comfortably situated in a retired street and 
provided with a beautiful garden; and Trinity Lodge, rue du Val-de 
Grace, under the auspices of the Anglican Church, very pleasantly 
installed. All these clubs offer homes to a limited number of 
American and English girls, as well as provide a complete social 
center with all the necessary equipment for a much larger number. 

Hitherto there have been no similar clubs, adequately equipped 
for American men students. The old American Art Association, 
which played such an important role in the life of American students 
in Paris during so many years, has been allowed to die. But at 
the time of going to press a " Maison des Etudiants Americains " is 
being organized.^ 

^ The following program of assistance to American students was unanimously 
adopted in 1916, by the Council of the University of Paris, on recommendation 
of a Committee of which M. Emile Durkheim was chairman: 

"i. Preparation of a book describing the several institutions of higher 
education in Paris, their organization, resources, and general methods; to be 
illustrated with numerous photographs; to be published in the French language 
and distributed to American universities. 

"2. Issuance of a university booklet annually, containing the information 
that would be needed by American students. 

"3. Appointment of one or more professors in each important American 
imiversity as a committee of correspondence with the University of Paris. 

"4. Establishment of courses in spoken French in American universities. 



420 APPENDIX III 

Instruction in French Language and Literature.— No people 
have made such earnest and systematic efforts to ensure the cor- 
rect teaching of their language and literature to foreigners as 
have the French in recent years. In this movement the Alliance 
Fran^aise, with headquarters at i86, boulevard Saint-Germain, 
Paris, has taken the lead. In co-operation with the higher educa- 
tional authorities, the Alliance not only offers courses at its head- 
quarters in Paris during the months of July and August, but also 
has arranged similar vacation courses either under its immediate 
direction or in connection with the Universities during the whole or 
a portion of the period from July i to October 31. 

Vacation courses are offered by the Universities of Besangon, 
Bordeaux, Dijon, Grenoble, Lille (at Boulogne-sur-Mer), Lyon, 
Nancy, Poitiers (at the ''Institut d'etudesde Touraine" at Tours), 
and Rennes (at Saint-Malo). 

Vacation courses under the direction of the Alliance Fran^aise 
are also offered at Villerville, Lisieux, Bayeux, Marseille (at the 
Institut moderne), Versailles (at the Lycee for girls), and Saint- 
Valery-en-Caux. 

Special courses in French for foreigners during the regular school 
year, usually extending from the first of November till the end of 
May, have been organized in all the French universities (except 
Aix, Alger and Clermont). 

Several private schools in Paris also offer excellent instruction 
in French during both the regular school year and the vacation, and 
even coach and prepare students for the examinations at the 
Sorbonne for the "Certificats d'etudes frangaises" and other 
diplomas. Such schools are the "Guilde Internationale, " 6, rue 
de la Sorbonne; the '' Institut Saint-Germain," rue des Ecoles; 
and others. 

For a complete detailed description of all these vacation and 
regular courses in French as given from year to year, consult the 
two booklets, pubUshed annually by the AUiance Fran^aise, already 

"5. Preparation of a list of boarding houses in Paris, carefully supervised 
by a university committee, for American students, both men and women. 

"6. Organization of committees to receive the student on arrival and assist 
him in the prosecution of his studies. 

"7. Establishment of an American club or home, where American students 
may meet and make acquaintance with each other and with the professors." 

Pursuant to the last-quoted resolution, plans are going forward for a Maison 
des Etudiants Americains. Professor Barrett Wendell, of Harvard University, 
formerly exchange professor at the Sorbonne, is the American Chairman; the 
Honorary Councillors include the presidents of several American universities. 



PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS 421 

referred to: "Guide illustre de I'etudiant etranger a Paris et en 
France" and the "Bulletin officiel de la Federation del' Alliance 
Frangaise aux Etats-Unis et au Canada." 

Responsible and capable private teachers in French can always 
be obtained on the recommendation of the various "Comites de 
patronage," the official bureau of information, or through the 
various students' clubs. 

If the American who has had a good grounding in French in our 
schools, but has not acquired perfect facility in the use of it, will 
go to France at the beginning of July, will settle down at a provin- 
cial university where vacation courses are offered, and will not only 
follow conscientiously these courses but also profit by the oppor- 
tunities offered by life in a recommended private family, there is 
is every likelihood that when the Universities open on the first of 
November, he will be able not only to follow but also to partici- 
pate actively in the courses offered. 

The Doctor's Degree (in Law, Medicine, Sciences, Letters 
and Pharmacy) conferred by the Universities. — The "Doctorats 
de I'universite" are of recent origin. Not until the Universities 
were constituted as separate and autonomous bodies by the law of 
July 10, 1896, were they delegated the power to establish and grant 
degrees in their own name. Prior to 1896, the various Faculties 
and Schools, now constituting the sixteen Universities, were inte- 
gral parts of the "Universite nationale de France," a single uni- 
versity system, administered by a "Grand Maitre," assisted by a 
"Conseil de TUniversite;" this university system was further sub- 
divided into "Academies," each under the direction of a "Recteur," 
assisted by a "Conseil Academique." All the degrees granted un- 
der this old system were degrees conferred by the State, usually 
carrying with them the right to practice some profession in France. 
Not only was the work prescribed for these degrees organized 
almost exclusively with reference to the exigencies of professional 
work in France; but the crowding of the professions and the conse- 
quent intense competition for positions made it necessary to hedge 
about these degrees with many restrictions. The substitution of 
school or university work successfully completed in another coun- 
try in the fulfillment of the requirements for these degrees was sel- 
dom permitted. The result was that few Americans sought these 
degrees; for they could not afford to spend the time and the money 
to go to France to finish their secondary school education and so 



422 APPENDIX III 

obtain the '^baccalaureat de renseignement secondaire/' required 
for practically all the higher degrees conferred by the State. 

No sooner were the Universities granted their autonomy in 
1896 than they began to take advantage of their newly conferred 
powers by estabhshing degrees of purely scientific and academic 
value, divorced from any direct relation to the professions in France. 
Among these degrees are the various "doctorats de I'universite." 
Though each University is free to determine for itself the conditions 
required for obtaining these degrees, all have striven toward a 
common standard, just as have our better institutions in giving 
a fixed value to our Ph.D. This process of standardizing has 
also been furthered by the desire to make the doctor's degrees, 
conferred by the Universities, stand for the same grade of 
scientific and scholarly achievements as those conferred by the 
State. 

Though the latter are still open to American and all other foreign 
students under the conditions indicated in Appendix II, still, to 
all intents and purposes, the university degrees serve the same 
function as our own doctor's degrees, and are consequently the 
degrees which most American graduate students in France will 
likely seek. 

The Doctor's Thesis and Examination. — A thesis is required in 
order to obtain the Doctor's degree in France, no matter along 
what line of specialization it is sought. In general this work cor- 
responds in scope to the thesis required for our Ph.D. Yet it is 
often a much more elaborate piece of work, amounting to a compre- 
hensive and exhaustive monograph on the subject. No limit as to 
its length and scope is laid down, as with us. Many French 
doctorate theses have become classics in their particular field of 
research and have raised their authors to the front rank of recog- 
nized scholars. 

The subject and general plan of the thesis must be submitted 
for approval to the Faculty in which the degree is sought, by a pro- 
fessor representing the special line of work implied in the thesis. 
When completed, it is passed upon by a group of specialists ap- 
pointed by the Dean, and, if accepted by them, is then approved 
by the Dean himself. The "Recteur" of the "Academie" finally 
passes upon it, and issues or denies a permission to print it. After 
it is printed, the candidate is called upon to support and defend his 
work in public before an examining committee, usually composed 
of six members. 



PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS 423 

The defence of the thesis consitutes the first part of the examina- 
tion. The second part consists of an oral examination on prob- 
lem and subject matter, chosen by the candidate and approved by 
the Faculty. The candidate usually makes a list of the courses 
he has pursued and the allied subjects he has studied; he is ques- 
tioned on these subjects, which may be chosen among the courses of 
the different Faculties. If he passes successfully, he is granted the 
degree of Doctor with the mention of the specialty: "philosophy," 
if that be the subject, on his diploma. 

The Significance of French Degrees conferred by the State, 
and their Relation to our American Degrees. — ^The system of State 
degrees and diplomas in France is so intimately related to the gen- 
eral evolution of French educational institutions, and is so unique 
in many respects, that it is difficult to interpret it in terms of any 
other system. Since, however, the main structure of the univer- 
sity system is constructed about these degrees, it is especially im- 
portant for the American student who enters this system to know 
something about them. 

Baccalaureat. On completing successfully his secondary school 
work, at the age of 17 to 19, the French student receives the 
*' baccalaureat de I'enseignement secondaire" which permits him to 
enter any of the Faculties or Schools of higher education, except 
those admitting only on the basis of a competitive examination, 
such as the "ficole poly technique." The "baccalaureat" repre- 
sents, in general attainments in knowledge, method and tech- 
nique, two years or so in advance of that represented by the 
diplomas of our best high schools and preparatory schools. In 
particular, the "baccalaureat" stands for a degree of specializa- 
tion and technical proficiency as yet not attained in our secondary 
schools. 

Licence. Most French students, on entering the university, 
enroll as candidates for the degree of "licence" in one of the Facul- 
ties in which it is conferred. Law, Sciences or Letters; or else they 
work to obtain the "Certificate d'etudes physiques, chimiques et 
naturelles," which is absolutely required for entrance on the regular 
five-year course in medicine. 

The "licence en droit" is absolutely required for admission to 
the bar in France, and confers that right. In general function, 
then, it corresponds to our degree of Bachelor of Laws, except that 
it comprehends also our State bar examinations. 



424 APPENDIX III 

The "licence es sciences" and the "licence es lettres" confer 
upon those who hold them the right to become candidates for the 
teaching positions of "Charge de cours" in a "Lycee" or professor 
in a "College." The "Lycee" is a higher and more completely 
equipped preparatory school than the "College." These two 
degrees correspond in a general way to our degrees of Bachelor 
of Science and Bachelor of Arts respectively. However, the 
French degrees stand for a very much higher degree of speciali- 
zation than do ours; this is evidenced by the fact that the "licence" 
can only be obtained along some one definite line of work, as 
Modern Languages, Philosophy, etc. The system of graduating 
with honors, as it is carried out at Harvard College, approaches 
most closely the French scheme of specialization.. 

The ^^Diplomes d' etudes superieures^^ ("de sciences," "de 
lettres") are even more difficult to interpret in terms of our de- 
grees. In some respects they correspond to the Master of Arts 
degree, especially as it used to be interpreted when it involved 
the preparation of a thesis on a subject approved by the Faculty. 
The preparation of the thesis is the main requirement for these 
French degrees; but the thesis does not necessarily imply the origi- 
nal research required for the Doctor's thesis but rather implies well- 
grounded information and erudition. The candidate usually 
spends about a year in preparation for the degree; but no formal 
requirements are laid down. Since 1904 all candidates for the 
"Agregation" are absolutely required to present this degree along 
with the "licence." 

^^AgregeJ' As a special means of determining the fitness and of 
choosing the candidates for regular professorships in the "Lycees" 
and for teaching positions other than professorships in the Univer- 
sities, the French educational authorities estabhshed as early as 
1825, competitive examinations, the so-called "agregations de 
I'enseignement secondaire" in lettres and the sciences. A certain 
number of candidates along each line of specialization who stand 
highest in these examinations are accorded the title of "agrege" 
and receive appointments to the teaching positions which are open. 
About the preparation for this degree a very considerable portion 
of the work in every Faculty of Science and Faculty of Letters is 
organized. Practically the entire work of the two higher normal 
schools for men and women ("Ecole normale superieure" and 
"Ecole normale superieure d'enseignement secondaire des jeunes 
Filles") is organized in preparation for these "agregations." 



PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS 425 

The "agregations" are naturally not open to foreigners, except 
under very special conditions. No one would likely seek the title 
who did not desire to enter the teaching profession in France. The 
only American title which in any respect corresponds to the title 
of ''agrege" is that conferred upon the recipient of a teacher's 
diploma, respresenting some line of speciaUzation. The right to 
teach in a certain grade of school attaches to the French as it does 
to the American degree. 

The ^^ Doctoral de VEtat" is the absolutely required prerequisite 
for appointment to a professorship in any French university. This 
appHes especially to the degree as conferred in the Sciences and in 
Letters, and accounts for the fact that these degrees are generally 
recognized as standing for a higher degree of scholarship than any 
other similar degrees conferred in other countries to-day. The 
Doctor's degree in Medicine is absolutely required of every one 
practicing medicine in French territory. 

It will be apparent that in general function the French doctor's 
degrees in Lettres, Sciences, and Medecine correspond to our Ph. D., 
D.Sc, and M.D. respectively. The doctor's degree in Law, 
on the contrary, is earned on the basis of scholastic work just as 
are the other doctor's degrees, while with us it has been a purely 
honorary degree, except for the J.D. recently adopted in some 
universities, and the D.C.L. still surviving in others. No Amer- 
ican university, it is believed, confers the doctor's degree especially 
in Pharmacy. 

General Expenses. — It is especially difficult, under the rapidly 
changing conditions of living in France, to offer any exact estimate 
of probable expenses. Under normal conditions in recent years, 
pension in private families or in family hotels in Paris could be 
obtained for 150 francs a month and up. Pension includes board 
and lodging, and sometimes service. Lodgings in the Latin Quarter 
run from about eight dollars a month up. In general, living ex- 
penses in the provincial towns are considerably less than in Paris. 

A student should scarcely go to France, expecting to defray 
all his expenses during a year, for less than six hundred dollars. 
With a thousand dollars a year at his disposal a student should be 
able to live comfortably. 

All the university fees for matriculation, enrollment, examina- 
tions, theses, and diplomas have been indicated in Appendix II in 
direct connection with the discussion of these topics. 



426 APPENDIX III 

The principal French steamship lines offer very considerable 
reductions in fares to American students who are going to France 
to study. Application should be made through the nearest French 
consul. 

Important Suggestions. — Be sure to obtain an American pass- 
port and have it countersigned and sealed ("vise") by the nearest 
French consul. 

Do not forget to take with you all your diplomas and other docu- 
ments attesting your scholastic work successfully completed. 
These should also be countersigned and sealed by the French 
consul of your region; and translated either under his direction or by 
a legalized translator in France. 

On arriving in France, do not fail to declare immediately your 
residence there, either at the city-hall of the town in which you 
settle, or in Paris at the Prefecture de Police (Bureau des Etrangers, 
I, rue de Lutece). 




BIBLIOTHEQUE NATIONALE. READING ROOM 




PASTEUR'S ORIGINAL LABORATORY 



Index 

PRINCIPAL SUBJECTS 

UNIVERSITIES 

PERSONAL NAMES 



Index of Principal Subjects^ 



Page 

Administrative law. . . . 157, 282 
Agriculture (chapter on) 61 
American archaeology ... . 25 

religion 316 

Anatomy 175, 199, 331, 334 

Anthropology (chapter on) 21 
Anthropology, palaeonto- 

logical i30»34i 

Anthropometry 22, 85 

Archaeology (chapter on) 31 
Archaeology, American. . . 25 

Chinese 238 

Hindu 238 

prehistoric 22 

Semitic 244 

Architecture, history of . . . 34 

practical 100 

Art, History of (chapter 

on) 31 

Astronomy (chapter on) . . 47 
Astronomical mathematics. 164 

Astrophysics 47? 276 

Assyrian religion 316 

Assyriology 241, 246 

Babylonian rehgion 316 

archaeology 27 

Bacteriology 202, 333 

Biology (chapter on) 331 

Biology, chemical 70 

Botany (chapter on) 57 

Byzantine archaeology . ... 317 

history 36 

philology 241 

Cartography 107, 116, 121 

Celestial mechanics 47, 166 

Celtic philology 223, 254 

religion 316 



Page 

Chemistry (chapter on) . . 69 
Chemistry, physiological . . 177 

Christian archaeology 35 

history i35.3i8 

Church history 135,318 

law 151^31^ 

Colonial law and adminis- 
tration 153,285 

Comparative grammar . ... 223 

law 152 

legal history 151 

religion 314 

Constitutional law 282 

Criminal law 156, 292 

Criminology (chapter on) . 81 

Criminology 156 

Crystallography 122 

Ecclesiastical history. . 135, 318 

law .131,318 

Economics (chapter on) ... 279 
Education (chapter on) . . . 89 
Educational psychology . . . 307 

Egyptian religion 314 

Egyptology 31.244 

Electricity 102, 103, 275 

Engineering (chapter on) 97 
English Philology (chap- 
ter on) 250 

Entomology 340 

Epigraphy 31.207 

Ethnography 24 

Ethnology 24 

Evolution, organic 21,331 

Finance 290 

Forestry 65 

Geodesy 50 

Geography (chapter on) . . 107 



^ The Index covers only the main chapters, not the Appendix 
429 



430 



INDEX 



Page 

Geology (chapter on) ... . 115 
Greek Philology (chap- 
ter on) 205 

Greek archaeology 32 

rehgion 317 

Gynecology 200 

History (chapter on) 133 

History of Art (chapter 

on) 31 

History of law 150 

of religion 314 

of Rome 216 

Horticulture 62 

Hydrobiology 341 

Indie religion 313 

Indology 234 

International Law (chap- 
ter on) 279 

International law 157 

Italian philology 225 

Jurisprudence 154, 285 

Latin Philology (chapter 

on) 205 

Law (chapter on) 143 

Law, administrative 282 

constitutional 282 

criminal 292 

international 283 

Legal history 150, 285 

medicine 199 

Linguistics 25,214,223,233,250 
Literature; see Philology. 

Logic 265 

Marine biology 338, 341 

engineering 103 

Mathematics (chapter on) 163 
Mathematical atronomy 47, 166 

philosophy 262 

physics 276 

Mechanics 102, 275 

Medical Science (chapter 

on) 169 

Medicine (chapter on) 187 



Page 

Medicine, experimental ... 336 

Metallurgy 97 

Metaphysics 260 

Methodology 265 

Microbiology 202 

Micro-parasitology 333 

Mineralogy (chapter on) . 122 

Mineralogy loi 

Mohammedan archaeology 37 

law 153 

religion 317 

Naval architecture 103 

Neurology (chapter on) . . 179 

Neurology 305 

Numismatics 33,211,218 

Observational astronomy . . 51 

Oceanography in, 116 

Oriental Philology (chapter 

on) 233 

Oto-rhino-laryngology . . . . 197 

Paleobotany 58, 128,340 

Palaeography 37, 207, 215 

Palaeontology (chapter 

on) 127 

Palaentology, anthropolog- 
ical 22 

zoological 335^340 

Parasitology 202, 333, 339 

Pathology (chapter on) . . 202 
Pathological psychology. . . 308 

Pedagogy 89 

Penology 81, 292 

Petrology (chapter on) . . 124 
Philology (chapter on) . . . 205 
Philosophy (chapter on) . . 257 

Philosophy, legal 154 

psychological 307 

religious 318 

social 323 

Phonetics 223 

Photography, astronomical 52 

Physics (chapter on) 273 

Physics, chemical 70 

mathematical 167 



INDEX 



Page 

Physiology (chapter on) . . 175 
Physiological psychology . . 308 

zoology 33^, 33^ 

Political economy 286 

Political Science (chap- 
ter on) 279 

Political science, history of . 134 

Prehistory 24, 33 

Protoplasm 332 

Protozoology 339 

Psychiatry 185 

Psychology (chapter on) . 303 
Psychology, general 260 

religious 315 

Religion (chapter on) .... 311 
Religion, Hindu 235 

Semitic 247 

Religious philosophy 264 

sociology 325 

Roman archaeology 32 

history 134,216 

law 149 

religion 208, 317 



431 

Page 

Romance Philology (chap- 
ter on) 221 

Seismology 116 

Semantics 209, 222, 233 

Semitic archaeology 37 

religion 314 

Semitic Philology (chap- 
ter on) 243 

Sinology 238 

Social philosophy 262 

psychology 306 

Sociology (chapter on) ... 321 
Sociology, anthropological. 25 

economics and 287 

philosophy and 262 

Spanish philology 225 

Statistics 86,325 

Surgery (chapter on) ... . 196 

Taxonomy 57 

Vulcanology 117, 119, 125 

Zoology (chapter on) 329 



Index of Universities ^ 



Page 

Zoology ........ ...338,341 

Caen; instruction in 

Archaeology 41 

Chemistry 76 

Geology 120 

History.. i35; 136 

Law 157 

Palaeontology 129 

Philology, Classical 217 

Romance 231 

English 254 

Zoology. .^ 341 

Clermont; instruction in 

Chemistry 76 

Geography in 

Geology 117, 120 

History 135,136 

Philology, Classical 216 

Zoology . . 341 

Dijon; instruction in 

Archaeology 41 

Chemistry 76 

Education 92 

Geology 120 

History 135,136 

Eaw 150,157 

Philosophy 268 

Political Science 298 

Grenoble; instruction in 

Archaeology 41 

Chemistry 76 

Education 92 

Geography in 

Geology 117, 120 

History 136 

Law 151,155,157 

Palaeontology 129 

1 See additionally the complete enumeration in Appendix II. The Index 
covers only the main chapters. 

433 



Page 

Aix-Marseille; instruc- 
tion in 

Astronomy 54 

Chemistry 77 

Geology 120 

History 135,136 

Law 153 

Philology, Classical 213 

Physics 277 

Political Science. . . . 283, 285 
Zoology 342 

Algiers; instruction in 

Archaeology 41 

Astronomy 54 

Geology 117, 120 

Zoology 340 

Besan^on; instruction in 

Chemistry 76 

Education 92 

Geology 120 

History 135,136 

Philology, Classical 215 

Bordeaux; instruction in 

Astronomy 54 

Chemistry 76 

Geography in 

Geology 120 

History 135,136 

Law 150,153,155,157 

Philology, Classical 213 

Romance 230 

English 254,255 

Philosophy 268 

Physics 277 

Political Science 

.; 282,285,299,300 

Sociology 326 



434 



INDEX 



Page 

Philology, Classical 214 

Romance 231 

Political Science 298, 300 

Zoology ^ 338 

Lille ; instruction in 

Chemistry 76 

Criminology 84 

Education 92 

Geology 117, 120 

History 135,136 

Law 150,151,155,157 

Medicine 193, 199, 204 

Mineralogy. 126 

Palaeontology 129 

Philology, Classical 

213,215,216 

English 254 

Political Science. 298 

Zoology 341 

Lyon; instruction in 

Archaeology 41 

Astronomy 54 

Chemistry 77 

Criminology 84 

Education 92 

Geology 120 

History. 135,136 

Law. ..149, 151,153,155,157 

Medicine 193, 204 

Mineralogy 126 

Philology, Classical 213 

Romance 231 

Philosophy ; . . 268 

Physics 277 

Political Science 297,306 

Zoology 338,341 

MoNTPELLiER ; instruction in 

Agriculture 61 

Botany 60 

Chemistry 77 

Criminology 84 

Geography iii 

Geology 120 

History 136 

Law i55>i57 



Page 

Medicine 204 

Mineralogy 126 

Philology, Classical 214 

Romance 231 

Philosophy 268 

Physics 277 

Political science 298 

Psychology 309 

Zoology 337,340 

Nancy; instruction in 

Agriculture 60 

Botany 60 

Chemistry 77 

Criminology 84 

Engineering 104 

Geography iii 

Geology 120 

History. 135,136 

Law 155 

Mineralogy 126 

Philology, Classical 214 

Philosophy 269 

Political Science 285, 299,300 

Sociology 327 

Zoology...... ...... 340, 341 

Paris; instruction in 

Anthropology 26 

Archaeology 36 

Astronomy 53 

Botany 59 

Chemistry 70 

Criminology 84 

Education 91 

Engineering 100 

Geography no 

Geology 118 

History 134,136 

Horticulture 61 

Law 149,150,151,152, 

153,155,157 

Mathematics . 164 

Medicine, Physiology. . . 177 

Neurology 179 

Medicine 189 

Surgery 198 



Pathology 

Mineralogy 

Palaeontology 

Petrology 

Philology, Classical 

210-217 

Romance 

Oriental 

Semitic 

English 

Philosophy 

Physics 

PoHtical Science 

Psychology 

Religion 

Sociology 

Zoology 

Poitiers ; instruction in 

Chemistry 

Geology 

History 

Mathematics 

Philology, Classical 

English 

Philosophy 

Physics 

Political Science 

Zoology 

Rennes; instruction in 
Agriculture 



INDEX 435 

Page Page 

202 Chemistry 78 

125 Geography m 

128 Geology 120 

125 History 135 

Law 157 

,219 Philology, Classical 213 

227 Romance 231 

240 English 254,255 

245 Philosophy 269 

253 Physics. . 277 

265 Political Science 299 

276 Psychology 309 

282 Zoology 340 

307 Toulouse ; instruction in 

315 Archaeology 41 

326 Astronomy 54 

334 Chemistry 78 

Criminology 84 

78 Education 92 

120 Geology 120 

136 History 135,136 

165 Law. . . 150, 151, 154, 155, 157 

214 Mathematics 165 

254 Mineralogy 126 

269 Philology, Classical. . 213, 214 

277 Romance 232 

299 Physics 277 

340 Political Science 283, 284, 299 

Zoology 338;34i 

61 



Index of Personal Names 



A Page 

Abbo 23 

Abraham. 276 

Achard 192 

d'Acy 23 

Adams 49 

d'Aguesseau 143 

Albanel 86 

Albarran 200 

Alciat 143, 147 

d'Alembert 48, 275 

Alexandre 217 

AUais 231 

Aloy 78 

Alphandery 318 

Alquier 184 

Amagat 275 

Ambard 193, 200 

Amelineau 242, 316 

Ampere 69, 98, 276 

Andersen 237 

Andoyer 53 

Andral 188 

Andre-Thomas 190 

AngeUier 252 

Anglade 232 

Anquetil-Duperron 313 

Antoine 209, 234 

Appell 53, 164, 166, 276 

Appleton 149, 285, 297 

Aquillon 102 

Arago 10, 100, 275 

Arbois de Joubainville . ... 152 

Arcelin 23 

d'Archiac 115 

Aristotle 261 

Arnaud 72 

Arrou 200 

d'Arsonval 176 

Aubry 8^ 



Page 

Audibert 149, 285 

AudoUent 216 

Audouin 214 

Auenbrugger 187 

Auger 73 

Aulard 135 

Austin 154 

Avogado 70 



Babelon 37, 134, 215 

Babinski 183, 185, 192 

Bacot 241 

Baillon 58 

Baire 165 

Baldensperger 225, 253 

Baldwin 306 

Ballet 185 

Barbeau 250, 254 

Barbier 77 

Barnard 92 

Barrande 128 

Barre 108, 119 

Barrois 120, 126 

Earth 235, 236,313 

Barthelemy 282, 283, 296 

Barthelemy, A 245 

Barthelemy-Saint-Hilaire . . 

235, 241 

Basdevant 284, 298 

Basset 26 

Bastiat 287, 288 

Bastide 252 

Batbie 283 

Baudot 98 

Baudouin 24, 143 

Baye 24 

Bazaillos : . . . . 266 

Bazy 199 



437 



438 



INDEX 



Page 

Beaumont. 123 

see also Elie de Beaumont 

Beaune 150 

Beauregard 326 

Beccaria 81, 156 

Becquerel 69, 275, 276 

Becquerel, A. C 100 

Becquerel, Henri 11, 70, 100 

Bedier 224, 229, 251, 254 

Behal 72, 74 

Behring 190 

Beljame 252 

Bellart 146 

Bellour 289 

Belot 265 

Bemont 135 

Benard 277 

Benedite, G 39 

Benedite, L 39 

Benoist 209 

Berard 218, 219 

Berenger 86, 153 

Bergaigne 235-238, 313 

Berger 198, 245 

Bergson 59, 260, 261, 266 

Bernard 109, 136, 193 

Bernard, Claude. . .11, 172, 175 
176,265,331,336 

Bernier 21 

Berr 265 

Berryer 146 

Bert 176 

Berthaut 107, 119 

Berteaux 35 

Berthelemy. .282, 283, 294, 296 

Berthelot, A 317 

Berthelot, P 69, 70, 72 

Berthelot, R 265 

Berthier loi 

BerthoUet 69, 70 

Bertillon 22, 85 

Bertrand 24, 58, 116, 129 

Bertrand, G 71, 72, 73 

Bertrand, J loi 

Bertrand, M loi 



Page 

Besnier 135, 215, 217 

Besredka 204 

Besson 76 

Beuchat 24 

Beudant 155, 298 

Beugnot 150 

Beurnier 200 

Biard 250 

Bichat 187,335 

Bigot 120, 129 

Binet 86, 90, 307 

Binet du Jassonneix 73 

Biot 14, 276 

Blackstone 148 

de Blainville 127 

Blaise 73 

Blake 198 

Blanc 287 

Blanchard 109, in, 136 

191, 202, 339, 340 

Blanchet 34 

Blarez 76 

Bloch 134, 136 

216,234,241, 265 

Blondel, A 98 

Blondel, M 260, 264 

Bloomfield 236 

Blouet 32 

Bodin 281 

Bodroux 78 

de Boeck 284 

Boisbaudran 123 

Boisguillebert 286 

Boissier 208 

Boissonade 136, 217 

Bonfils 284 

Bonnecase 157 

Bonnet 102, 146 

Bonnet, M 209 

Bonneville de Marsangy . . . 82 

Bonnier 58, 59, 339, S4o 

Bonstetten 24 

Bopp 233 

Borel 164, 166, 265 

Bornecque 213 



Page 

Borrel 203 

Borrelly 51 

Bossert 51 

Botta 31,244 

Bouasse 277 

Bouche-Leclercq . . 134, 216, 219 
Boucher de. Perthes. 22, 23, 130 

Bougainville 25 

Bougie 263,268, 325,326 

Bouillard 188 

Boule . 22, 23, 24, 127, 

129,339,341 

Bourciez 230 

Bourdaloue 51 

Bourdon 268, 269, 309 

Bourgeois 50, 123, 136 

Bourgeois, FAbbe 23, 24 

Bourguet 219 

Bourguinon 182 

Bourneville 183 

Bourquelot 72, 74 

Bourrilly 136 

Boussac 118 

Boussinesq 167, 275, 276 

Boussingault 70 

Boutmy 138, 281, 300 

Boutroux 165 

Boutroux, E 261, 266 

Boutroux, L 76 

Boutroux, P 265 

Bouty 276 

Bouvy 225, 231 

Bouzat 78 

Boxler 216 

Brasseur de Bourbourg ... 25 

de Brazza 25 

Bravais 122 

Breal 89,209,219, 223,233 

Brehier 135, 268 

Bremond 283 

Breton 204 

Bretonneau 188 

Breuil 23 

Brillouin 168 

Brissaud 180, 182, 189 



INDEX 439 

Page 

Brissaud, J 150 

Brisson 143 

Brives 121 

Broca 21, 197, 200, 201 

de Broglie 281 

Brongniart 58, 115, 126 

Brougham 148 

Brown-Sequard 176 

Brumpt 339 

Bruneti^re 225 

Brunhes 109, 117 

Brunner 150 

Brunot 223, 227, 254 

Brunschvicg 267 

von Buch 115 

Bude 207 

Buffon 21,25,127,332 

Buisine 76 

Buisson, F 89 

Buisson, H 277 

Burnet 204 

Burnouf 217, 234, 235, 313 



Cabouat 289 

Cagnat.33,37,135,213, 215-217 

Cahen 166,283 

Caillaux 290 

Caillemer 134, 151, 298 

Cailletet loi 

Caland 237 

Gallon 98, loi 

Calmette 135, 193, 204 

Calot 201 

Camus 184 

de CandoUe 57 

Capitan 23,26 

Capitant 153, 155, 289, 296 

Caralp 126 

Carez 119 

Carnot 97, 100, 275 

Carre 136 

Cartailhac 23 

Cartan. 167 

Cartault 212 



440 INDEX 

Page ^ Page 

Casanova 240, 245 Chavegrin. 153 

Casaubon 133, 207, 217 Chenon 151, 285 

Cassini 10 Chesneau 102 

Castaigne 193, 202 Chevalier 288 

Castelain 254 Chevreul 69, 70 

Cauchy 163, 275 Chezy 234, 235 

Caullery 2>?>^y?>?>^ Chipiez 2>?> 

Cayeux 118, 125 Choate 146 

Cazamian 252, 253 Choisy 35 

Cestre 254 Chomel 188 

Cezar-Bru 300 Chretien 76 

Chabaneau 223 Christy 23 

Chabert 214 Civiale 197 

Chabot 245 Cirot *. 231 

Chabrie 7i)73 Clairaut 47,48,50 

Chacornac 51 Clapeyron 275 

Chaillon 203 Claude 184 

Chamard 228 Cledat 223, 231 

Chamberland 72 Clerc 135 

ChampoUion 12,31, 243 Clermont-Ganneau. . 37, 38, 240, 

Chantemesse 202 241, 246 

Chantre 24 Clunet 293 

Chappuis i4> 15? 275 Cobden 288 

Chaput 200 Cochin 225 

Charcot 180, 189,305 Coggia 51 

Charency 25 Cohen . 33 

Chareyre 102 Coke I46,"i47 

Charlois 51 Colbert 12, 143, 286 

Charmont 155, 298 Collet 1^231 

Charnay 25 Collignon 22, 36, 134, 213 

Charpy 99 CoUinet 150, 151 

Chasles 164 CoUot 120 

Chasles, E 226 Colson 102, 289, 290 

Chasles, P 226 Combes 98, loi 

ChasHn 308 Compayre 89 

Chateaubriand 281 Comte 25, 154, 262, 305, 

Chatelain 93>2i5 2>^2>^?>^A 

ChatelHer 24 Condillac 260 

Chatton 340 Constans 213 

Chau£fard 189, 191 Constant 281 

Chauveau 157 Copaux 72 

Chauvet 23 Coras 147 

Chavannes, E 239, 240 Cordier 239, 240 

Chavannes, Puvis de 9 Cormenin 282 

Chavastelon 76 Cornu, A loi^, 257 



Page 

Cornu, J 226 

Corot 24 

Corre 8^ 

Corvisart 187 

Cosserat 277 

Costantin . 58, 59 

Couche 97, loi 

Coulomb 9^, 275 

Courajod 34 

Courbaud 212 

Courbet 100 

Courmant 23, 193, 204 

Courbet 100 

Courtade 200 

Courteault . 136 

Cousin 260 

Coutil 24 

Couturat 265 

Coxe loi 

Cremieu 273 

Cresson 266 

Croiset, A 218,219 

Croiset, M 218, 219 

Crouzon 182 

Cruet 155 

Cuche 86 

Cujas 133,143,147,281 

Cultru 136 

Cuny 234 

Cuq 149, 285, 296 

Curie, Mme. S 70j 71? 73, 

123,276 

Curie, P '.69,71,123, 126, 

276 

Cusset 24 

Cuvier. . . .11,21,115,127,128, 
130,331,334,335 



Dallemagne 84 

Dalton 69 

Damoiseau 49 

Damas-Hinard 226 

Dangeard 58 

Daremberg 209, 218 



INDEX 441 

Page 

Dareste 152, 285 

Darmesteter, A 222 

Darmesteter, J 313 

Dartein 35 

Darwin 332 

Dastre^ 176,177,338 

Daubree 98, 116, 123 

Dauriac, A 102 

Dauriac, L . 264, 265 

Debidour 136,319 

Dechelette 24 

Declareuil 151,300 

Defremery 244 

Degert 216 

Degois 157 

Dejerine, J 181-185, 199 

Dejerine, Mme 181 

Dejob 225 

Delacroix 267 

Delafosse 122 

Delage, A 120 

Delage, Yves 338 

Delaruelle 213 

Delattre 252 

Delaunay 49 

see also de Launay. 

Delaunoy loi 

Delbet 200 

Delbos 307 

Delebecque 109 

Delezenne 72 

Delisle 133, 209 

Delorme 198 

Delpech 298 

Demangeon 109, no 

Demarest 115, 116 

Demogue 155, 157, 285, 298 

Demoulins 326 

Denifle 93 

Deniges 76 

Deniker 22 

Denis 136 

Denis, F 226 

Denman 146 

Deperet 120, 127 



442 



INDEX 



Page 

Deprez 98 

Derenbourg, H 245 

Derenbourg, J 245 

Derocquigny 250, 253 

Descamps, P 200 

Descartes 13, 163, 259, 260, 274 

Deschamps 226 

Des Cloizeaux 124, 125 

Desdevises du Dezert 136 

Desgrez 72, 74 

Deshayes 128 

Desjardins 284 

Deslandres 52, 276, 298 

Deslongchamps 127 

Desnoyers 24 

Despagnet 284 

Despine 81 

Desrousseaux 219 

Desserteaux 150, 298 

Dhaleine 252 

Dichirara 200 

Diehl 35,36,135,241 

Dieulafoy 32, 189 

Diez 221, 223 

DoUfus-Ausset 116 

Dornat 143, 148, 281 

Doneau 143, 281 

Donoyer. 288 

Dopter 204 

Dornet 213 

Dottin 233,255 

Douaren 143 

Doyen 198 

Doyon 176 

Drach 276 

Dubois 299 

Duboscq 337,341 

Dubourg 76 

Du Cange 133, 207, 222 

Duchenne 189 

Duck 143 

Duclaux 72 

Dufour 283 

Dufour, L 340 

Dufrenoy loi, 116 



Duguit 155, 282, 285, 299 

Duhem 70, 265, 277 

Dujardin 33^,333 

Dujardin-Beaumetz 204 

Dulong 100, 275 

Dumas 69, 70, 136 

Dumas, G 268, 307 

Dumont 325 

Dumont, A 32,218 

Dumoulin 143, 281 

Dunan 266 

Dupanloup 89 

Duplessix 284 

Dupont- White 281 

Dupre 185, 186 

Dupuis ^■, 284 

Dupuytren 172, 174, 196 

Durand 214 

Durkheim. . .25,85,91, 92, 152 
263, 267,268,315,325,326 

Duruy 89 

Dusuzeau 102 

Duval 245 

Duvegrier 25 

Du Verdy 284 



E 

Ebelmen 123 

Edmond 24 

Edmont 223, 229 

Egleston loi 

Eiffel 97 

Elie de Beaumont . 98, 100, loi, 
115,116, 146 

Encyclopedists 260 

Enlart 34, I35 

Enriquez 184 

d'Entrecasteaux 25 

Erasmus 207 

Ernout 213, 234 

Erskine 146 

Esmein 150, 282 

Esperandieu 34 

Espinas 324 



Esteve 

Estienne, Henri 217, 

Estienne, Robert 207, 

Evans 

F 

Fabia 

Fabre 

Fabre, J 

Fabry 52, 54, 

Faguet 

Faidherbe 

Falbot 

Fauchet 

Fauchille .284, 

Faure 199, 200, 294, 

Fauriel 224, 

de Faye 

Feb vre 

Fenelon 

Ferand-Giraud 

Fermat • 

Fernbach 

Ferry 

Feuillerat 252, 

Ficheur 

Filhol 

Finot 237, 

Fizeau 52, 122, 

Flach.... 135, 150, 151,153, 

Flahault 

Flamand 

Fliche 

Flory 

Flusin 

Foix 

Fonsegrive 264, 

de Forcrand 

Forest 

Fossey 240, 241, 246, 

Fouan 

Foucart. . .37, 134,218, 219, 
Foucault. .98, 268, 269, 275, 

Foucher 237, 238, 

Fouillee 89, 154, 264, 



INDEX 443 

Page Page 

225 Foulche-Delbosc 226 

222 Fouque 123,124 

217 Fourier. . . 154, 163, 275, 276, 287 

23 Fournier, E 120 

Fournier, P. . .134, 151, 189, 296 

Franf ois-Franck. . . 176, 177, 189 

213 Franklin 275 

78 Frechet 165 

340 Fremy ' 123 

277 Fresnel 9,124,275 

225 Freundler 73 

26 de Freycinet 100 

120 Friedel 123, 126 

224 Funck-Brentano 284 

293 Fustel de Coulanges. . . 130, 144, 

296 150,152,285 

225 Fuster 326 

136 ^ 

286 Gachon 136 

284 Gafifarel 136 

163 Gaffiot 214 

73 Gaidoz 229, 254 

89 Galabert 135 

254 Galileo 274 

121 Galland 243 

127 Gallavardin 193 

238 Gallois 109, no 

275 Galois 163 

296 Garbe 277 

III Garf on. .. .84, 86, 157, 296,326 

121 Garnier 77,185 

135 Garraud 86, 157, 285, 297 

86 Garsonnet 150 

76 Gaucher 192 

182 Gauchy 100 

266 Gauckler ^^ 

77 Gaudemet 298 

97 Gaudin 123 

316 Gaudry 127 

102 Gaultier 265 

319 Gauthiot 234, 241 

309 Gautier, A 72, 74 

316 Gautier, E. F 121 

325 Gautier, L 224 



444 



INDEX 



Page 

Gautier, T 226 

Gavet 299 

Gay 13s 

Gay-Lussac 69, 70, 100 

Gayon 76 

Gebhart 225 

Genestal 151,318 

Gentil 125 

Geny ..155,285,299 

Geoffroy St. Hilaire 21 

Gerardin 285 

Gerhardt 69, 70 

Gervais 127 

Giacobini 51 

Gibbs 6 

Gide, C 289, 290, 296, 326 

Gide, P ....152,285 

Gilbert 192 

Gilles de la Tourette 189 

Gillieron 223, 228, 229 

Gilman 6 

Ginguene 225 

Ginoulhiac 150 

Giran 78 

Girard, P 219 

Girard, P. F. . 134, 149. 285, 296 

Giraud 150, 285 

Giraud-Teulon 25 

Girault 285 

Girod 23 

Glangeaud 120 

Glasson 150, 285 

Gley 176,339 

Glotz 134,152,219 

Goblot 244, 268 

Godefroi, J 143, 281 

Godefroy, F 222 

Goelzer 212 

Goethe 5,7,16,332 

Goldschmidt 151 

Goldstiicker 235 

Gorgeu 123 

Gosset 200 

Goupil 75 

de la Goupilliere 98, 100 



Page 

Gournay 286 

Goursat 164, 166 

Gouy 277 

Gramme 98, 276 

Grammont 214, 231 

Grand-Eury 58 

Grandjean 123 

Granet 241, 316 

de la Grasserie 152 

Greard 89 

Grebaut 134, 246 

Grehant 176 

Grignard 77 

Grimm 233 

Gruner 98, loi 

Gsell 33,37,134,216,246 

Guebhard 24 

Guelle 284 

Guerin 204 

Guernier 298 

Guetat 157 

Guettard 115 

Guichard 73, 166, 276 

Guignard 58,59 

Guignebert 319 

Guillain 184, 193 

Guillaume 47, 275 

Guillebot de Nerville 102 

Guillet 99 

Guimbert 72, 74 

Guiraud. 135 

Guiyesse 38 

Guizot 89, 281 

Guntz 77 

Guyau 89, 264 

Guye 70 

Guyon 197, 193, 200 

Guyot 77,252 

H 

Hadamard . . . 164, 166, 167, 276 

Haddon 21 

Halbwachs 263 

Hale 276 



Page 

Halevy 266 

Halevy, J 241, 242, 247 

HaU 98 

Haller 7^^73,75 

Halphen 135 

Hamelin 264 

Hamilton 146 

Hamonet. 72 

Hamy 22,25,52 

Hanot 189, 191 

Hanriot 72 

Harnack 319 

Hartmann 200 

Harvey 336 

Hatzfeld 222 

Haug 117, 118 

Haumant 225 

Hauriou. . 155, 282, 283, 285, 300 

Hauser 136 

Haussoullier 38, 135, 152, 

218,219 

Hautefeuille 123, 284 

Hauvette 226, 228 

Hauvette-Besnault 235 

Haiiy 70, 98, 122 

Havet 211, 219, 229 

Hazard 225, 226 

Hedgcock 252 

Hennebique 97 

Henneguy 339 

Henriquez 193 

Henry 146 

Henry, Ch 308 

Henry, P 51 

Henry, Pr 51 

Henry, Victor 209, 237 

Henzey 32 

Hericourt 190 

Hermet 24 

Hermite 163 

Heron de Villefosse . 38, 39, 135, 

211, 216 

Heroult 98, loi 

Herve 26 

HoUeaux 36, 135, 219 



INDEX 445 

Page 

Homo 135 

Homolle 36, 218, 219 

Hospitalier 98 

Hotman 142, 147 

Houllevique 277 

Houssay 338 

Howard 156 

Huart. 241,247,317 

Hubert 25,263,316,325 

Huchard 189 

Huchon 253 

Huet 184 

Hugounenq 77 

Huguet 76 

Huguet, E 228 

Humbert 102, 167 

von Humboldt 5, 7, 11, 16 

Huvelin 149, 151, 285 

Huxley 129 

Huygens 274 



von Ihering 155 

Imbart de la Tour 284 

Imbeaux 102 

Irnerius 143 

Izoulet 266, 326 



Jaboulay 198 

Jacob, A 219 

Jacob, C. 120 

Jacob, E 209 

Jacquelin 283, 296 

Jacquey 298 

Jacquot 24 

Jalaguier 200 

Jamin 275 

Janet 192, 266, 285, 308 

Janssen 52 

Jay 153,289 

Jeanroy 224, 226, 227, 228, 

251,254 

Jeze 282, 283, 290, 293, 296 

Jobbe-Duval 149, 151 



446 INDEX 

Page Page 

Joffroy 189 Laferriere 150, 283 

Jolly 339 Lafond 226 

de Joly 102 Lagrange 48, 163, 275 

Joly, H 84 Laignel-Lavastine 184, 307 

Jonckheere 51 Lalande 267 

Jones 233 Lallemand 51 

Jordan. 135, 164 Lamarck.. . .11,21,57,115, 127, 

Joubert 98 331,332,335,336 

Joubin 339 Lamartine 81 

Jouguet 135, 215, 219 Lambert 151, 153, 155, 241, 

Julien 238,239 247,285,319 

JuUian 134 Lambin 207, 217 

Jumentie 184 Lambling 76 

Jungfleisch 7ij 75 Lamoignon 143 

Jusserand 251 Lamcereaux 189 

de Jussieu 57 Landouzy 190 

Landry 189, 289 

K Langevin '. . . 168, 276 

Kant 154, 261, 264, 268 Langlois 176, 339 

Kergomard 90 Langlois, C. V 138, 224 

Kilian 120, 129 Lanson 225, 227, 254 

Kirmisson 200, 201 Lapicque 176 

Kleinclausz 135 Laplace 48, 70, 163, 275 

Klippel 184 de Lapparent 98, 100, loi, 

Koenigs 167, 275, 276 108, 117 

de Lapradelle 284, 296 

L La Provostaye 14 

Labbe 192 Larcher 285 

Laberthonniere 264 Larnaude .... 155, 282, 285, 296 

Laborde 157, 297 La Rochefoucauld-Lian- 

Labori 147 court 81 

Laboulaye 150, 281 Lartet 23, 127, 130 

Labre 74 Lasegue 185 

Lacassagne 83, 85 de Lasteyrie 34? 41 

Lacaze-Duthiers 335, 336 de Latour, A 226 

Lachelier 260, 261,266 de Launay 98,99, loi, 102, 

La Combe 325 118, 123, 125 

Lacote 238 Laurent 135 

Lacour 166 Laurent, A. 69, 70, 78 

Lacroix, A. . . .109, 119, 124, 125 Laurent, E S^ 

Lacroix, L 318 Lauvergne 81 

La Curne de Sainte-Palaye 224 Lauvriere 252 

Laederich 191 Laveleye 152 

Laennec 174, 187 Laveran 190, 204, 340 

Lafaye 213, 215, 219 Laville 23 



INDEX 



447 



Page 

Lavisse 89, 109, 135 

Lavoisier 13, 69, 70 

Lebeau 72, 74 

Le Bel 7o>73 

Lebesgue 167 

Le Blanc 98 

Le Blant 34 

Le Bon 325 

Le Braz. . .'. 232, 255 

Lebreton loi 

Le Breton 231, 255 

Lechalas 265, 266 

Lecaillou 338 

Le Chatelier, A 247,326 

Le Chatelier, H. . . 71, 73, 74, 99, 
100,101,122,126,276 

Lecomte 59 

Le Comte, A 100 

Lecrivain 135, 214 

Le Dantec 338 

Leduc 276 

Lefebvre 151, 286, 296 

Lefevre-Pon talis 41 

Lefranc 229, 243, 254 

Legendre 163 

Leger 338 

Legouis 251,252,253 

Legrain 102 

Legueu 193, 200 

Leibnitz 261 

Lejars 198, 200 

Lejay 212 

Lejeal 25 

Lemaitre 225 

Lemercier 86 

Lemoine, G 73 

Lemoine, V 128 

Lemonon 284 

Lemoult 76 

Lenard 102 

Lenoir 97 

Lenormand 78 

Lenormant 244 

Lenormant, C 218 

Lenormant, F sSt 218 



Page 

Leon 265 

Lepine 193 

LePlay 287,325,326 

Le Poittevin. . . .84, 86, 157, 296 

Leprieur, Paul 39 

Leri 184 

Leriche 127 

Le Roux. . 277 

Leroy, M 156 

Le Roy, Ed 262, 264, 266 

Leroy-Beaulieu, Anatole. . . 138 
Leroy-Beaulieu, Paul. . 287, 289, 

296 

Lescoeur 76 

Lescure 153 

Lespieau 75 

de Lesseps 97 

Letourneau 25, 152, 325 

LetuUe 191, 202, 203 

Levaditi 204 

Levainville 109 

Levasseur 287, 289 

Le Verrier 10, 49 

Levi, Isidore 241, 249, 319 

Levi, Israel 241, 249, 317 

Levi, Sylvain . 238, 240, 241, 316 

Levy 222 

Levy, R. G 291 

Levy-Bruhl 263, 267, 268 

Levy-Ullmann 298 

Lhermitte 184 

Liard 89,265 

Liebig 15 

Lignier 58 

Limasset 102 

Linnaeus 21,335 

Lintilhac, E 224 

Liouville 163 

Lippmann 276 

Lipsius 207 

de L'Isle, Arnoul 243 

Lissajous. 275 

Lister 197 

Littleton 147 

Littre 217,325 



448 



INDEX 



Page 

Littre, E 222 

Lockyer 52 

Lods 240, 249, 319 

Loewy 52 

Loisel 339 

Loisy 130, 248, 264, 319 

Lombroso 81 

Lot, F 135,228,229 

Lot, J 229 

Loth 254 

de Loubat, Due 25 

Louis 174, 188 

Loyola 93 

Lucas- Championniere 197 

Luchaire 285 

Luizet .32,51 

Lyell 23 

Lyon-Caen 153, 296 

M 

Mabillon 207 

Mace 213 

Magendie 172, 174, 175 

Magnol 157 

Mahoudeau 26 

Maine de Biran 260, 261 

Maine, Sir Henry . 130, 144, 150, 

152 

Maitland 150 

Malapert 266 

Male 36,135 

Malesherbes 146 

Malgaigne 196 

Mallard loi, 122 

Malte-Brun 108 

Malus 9 

Mandaire 201 

Mangin 59 

Manouvrier . ... 22, 26, 309, 341 

Mansfield 146 

Maquenne 72 

Marey 172, 176, 178 

Marfan 192 

de Margerie. . 108, 109, 116, 119 
Marie 73 



Page 

Mane, A 308 

Marie, P.181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 
190,202,308 

Mariejol 136 

Mariette 12,31 

Marion, H 89, 92 

Marion, M 290 

Marlio 290 

Marouzeau 214, 229, 234 

Marquis 73 

Marsan 200 

Marschal 340 

de Martel 184 

Martha, C 208 

Martha, J 212 

Martin 23,72,98,203, 

217,245 

Martinenche 225, 226, 228 

de Martonne 108, 109, no, 

116,118 

Mascart 98, 275 

Maspero 12,31,38,240,314 

Masqueray 26 

Masseck 252 

Massenat 23 

Massigli 153 

Mathiez 136 

Matignon 71, 75, 126 

Matruchot 59 

Mauss 25,263,316,325 

Mauxion 269 

Maxwell 84 

May 149,285 

Maze 72 

Mazon 219 

Meige 182 

Meillet 214, 233, 238, 241 

Melin 327 

Menant 32, 244 

Merignhac 284, 299 

Merimee, E 226, 231 

Merimee, P 226 

Merlant 231 

Mersenne 275 

Meslin 277 



Page 

Mesnager 97? 99> 102 

Mesnil 72, 204, 340 

Metschnikoflf 204, 339 

Metzner 76 

Meunier 119, 125 

Meyer 222, 224 

Meyerson 265 

Meynial 149, 151 

Mezieres 225 

Michaut 228 

Michaux 199 

Michel 39 

Michel-Levy 100, 123, 124 

Michelet 89, 133 

Michon 299 

Michoud 155, 285, 298 

Migeon 39 

Milhaud 262, 267 

Mill 287 

Miller 217 

Millet 317 

Milne-Edwards. . .127, 128,335 

Minguin 77 

de Miribel 100 

Mitscherlich 14 

Moissan 69, 98 

Moitessier 77 

MoUiard 59 

Monaco, Prince of . .23,111,342 

Monceaux 212, 318 

Monge 163 

Monnier 150 

Montaigne 89 

de Montchretien 286 

Montel 167 

de Montessus de Ballore ... 116 

Montesquieu 133, 144, 281 

Montfaucon 208, 217, 224 

Morat 176 

Moreau 2 82, 283 

Morel ; 77,81,298 

Morel, L 252 

Morel-Fatio 226, 229 

Morestin 199 

Moret 38,318 



INDEX 449 

Page 

Morgagni 187 

de Morgan 32 

Morillot 231 

de Mortillet, A 23, 26 

de Mortillet, G 23, 24, 33 

Morvan 189 

Motylynsky 26 

Mouchet 200 

Mouret 102 

Moureu 72,74,75 

Mouriquand 193 

Mouton 72 

Moye 299 

MuUer 77 

Miiller, J 175, 336 

Miiller, M 235 

Miintz, A 73 

Miintz, E 35,41 

Muret 207,217 

N 

Nadaillac 24 

Napoleon 12, 243 

Nattan-Larrier 203 

Nau 245 

Negoette.... 339 

Nelaton 197 

Netter 192 

Newton 25, 26, 274, 275 

Nickles 120 

Nicloux 176 

Nicolas 199,339 

Nicolle 203 

Nisard 208 

de la Noe 108, 116 

de NoUiac 39, 225 

de Nostredame 224 



O'Connell 148 

Oechsner de Coninck 77 

Offret 126 

Ohm 276 

Oilier 197 

Omont 210 



450 



INDEX 



Page 

Oppert 32,244 

d'Orbigny 115, 128 

d'Orbiny 25 

Ortolan 149, 285 

Osmond 98 

Otis 146 

Ouvrard 73 

Owen 127 

Ozanam 225 



Painleve 164, 167 

Painvin loi 

Palante 265 

Palustre 34 

Pape-Carpentier 89 

Papillault 23, 609 

Papin 200 

Pardessus 150 

Pare 196 

Paris, Gaston 222, 224, 251 

Paris, Paulin 224, 226 

Parisot 135, 136 

Parodi 266 

Pascal 13, 163, 260, 274 

Passerat 109 

Pasteur . . . 13, 14, 15, 69, 70, 172, 
189,197,331,333,334,336 

Patin 208, 217 

Paulhan 265 

Pecaut 89 

Pelletan 102 

Pelliot 238, 239, 240 

Pellissier 255 

Percerou 153 

de Perceval 244 

Perdrix 77 

Perez. ^ 89,338 

de Perigny, Comte 25 

Perrault 10 

Perreau 326 

Perrey 116 

Perrier, C 84 

Perrier, E 338,339,341 

Perrin 200, 265 



Page 

Perrin, J .71,73,276 

Perronnet .....' 97 

Perrot^ 33,40 

Perrotin 51 

Petit 77,275 

Peyrony 23 

Pfister 135 

Philippe 308 

Physiocrats 286 

Piat.' 266 

Pic -...153,289,297 

Picard 265 

Picard, E 164, 165 

Picavet 267, 318 

Picot 225 

Picque 200 

Piedelievre 284, 296 

Piette 23 

Pigeaud 102 

Pigeon 76 

Pillet 284,296 

Pillon 264 

Pinart 25 

Pinel 174 

Piroutet 24 

Pistoye 284 

Pithou 207 

Place 31 

Planiol 155, 285, 296 

Plessis 212 

Poincare, H. . . 50, 100, loi, 164, 
167, 262,265 

Poincare, L 265 

Poinsot 275 

Poisson 48, 163, 275 

Politis 284 

Poinel 128 

Poncelet 97 

de Pontecoulant 49 

Pontremoli 3^,3^ 

Portier 190 

Post 144 

Postel 243 

Potain 188, 192 

Potherat 200 



Page 

Pothier 143, 281 

Potier loi 

Pettier 40, 213 

Pouillet 275 

Poupardin 135 

Pourcel 99 

Pozzi 200 

Pradier-Fodere 284 

Prenant 339 

Prentout 135 

Prestwich 23 

Prevost 86 

Prevost, M 100 

Prevost-Paradol 281 

Priem. 127 

Prilleux 58 

Proal 84 

Prou 135,215 

Proudhon 154, 287 

Prudhomme 86 

Pruner Bey 21 

Pruvot 338 

Psichari 218, 241,319 

Puech 219 

Puiseux 52,53 

Puvis de Chavannes 9 

de Puymaigre 226 



de Quatrefages. . . 21, 22, 25, 130 

Quatremere 244 

Quenu 199 

Quenisset 51 

Quesnay 286 

Quetelet 22,81, 325 

Quicherat 34, 208 

Quinet 89 



Rabelais 89 

Rabot 119 

Radais 59 

Radet 135 

Rames 24 

Ramus 93 



INDEX 451 

Page 

Raoult ; 70 

Rashdall 93 

Ravaisson 260, 261 

Raveneau 88, 109 

Rayer 188 

Rayet 52 

Rayet, 32 

Raymond 180 

Raynaud 26, 316 

Raynouard 222, 224 

Reaumur 98 

Rebelliau 319 

Reclus 108, 198, 200 

Recoura 76 

Regnault 100, loi 

Regnier 235 

Reinach 24,40, 211 

Remusat 238 

Renan3i, 133, 225, 244,263,314 

Renard 326 

Renaud 290 

Renault 58, 283,296 

Renel 216 

Renouvier 264 

Resal loi, 102 

Reuss 136 

Revault d'AUones 307 

Reverdin 198 

Reville 314 

Revillout freres 152 

Revoil 34 

Revon 136 

Rey 268 

Reynier 200 

Reynier, G 228 

Ribierre 85 

Ribot 90,306,307 

Ricard 200 

Richard 155, 327 

Richelieu 12, 13 

Richet 176, 190,338 

Ricord 174, 189 

Rieffel 200 

Riemann 209, 212 

Rist 193,326 



452 



INDEX 



Page 

Rivals 77 

Rivaud 269 

Riviere 23 

Rivot loi 

Robert 81 

De Roberty 325 

Robin 267 

Rochard 200 

de Rochas, Beau 97 

Rodet 204 

Rodin 9 

Roger 202 

Rolin 155 

RoUand 284, 299 

Rolland d'Erceville 93 

Rollet 86 

RoUin , 13,93 

Romain 214 

Roman 120 

Rome de I'Isle 70 

Romieu 102 

Roques 228, 229, 254 

deRosny 25 

Rosset 231 

Rossi 281 

Roth 235 

Rouard de Card 284, 299 

Roule 339 

Rousseau 89, 144, 260, 281 

Rousselot, I'Abbe.. . 25, 223, 230 

Rousselot, P 226 

Roussy 185, 202 

Routier 200 

Roux ... 72, 75, 78, 157, 190, 202, 

339 

Royer-CoUard 281 

Ruprich-Robert 34 

Rutot 24 

Ruyssen 268 



Sabatier, A 265 

Sabatier, P 78, 226 

de Sacy 244 

Saglio .209,218 



Page 

Sagnac 136 

Saladin 33 

Saleilles. . 154, 155, 157, 282, 285 

de Saporta 58, 128 

Sarasin 123 

Sarzec 32 

de Saulcy 244 

Saumaise 207 

de Saussure 233 

Sauvage 78, 97, loi, 102, 127 

Sauvageau 58 

Sauve 200 

Savariaud 201 

Savart 276 

Savigny 144 

Say 287 

Scaliger 133,207,217 

Schatz 298 

Scheil 39, 152, 241, 248 

Schelling 261, 268 

Scherer. 225 

Schiller 5 

Schirmer 25, 109 

Schloesing 73 

Schloesing fils. 73 

Schlumberger 35 

Schmidt 215 

Schneider 99 

Schultze 333 

Schupfer 150 

Schwann 333 

Schwartz 199 

Sebileau 200, 201 

See 135 

Seglas 308 

Seignobos 136 

Sejourne 102 

Senart 235,236,237 

Senderens 78 

Seraphin-Couvreur 239 

Serres 130 

Serrigny 282 

Serruys 219 

Sertillanges 266 

Servin 146 



INDEX 453 

Page ^ Page 

Seunes 120 de Tassy, Garcin 244 

Sicard 184 Teissier 189, 192, 193 

Simiand 264, 325 Temple 51 

Simon, J 89, 281 Termier loi, 118, 125 

Simon, T 307 Terracher 223 

Simonet 299 Terrier 198 

Sismondi 287 Tessier 283 

Slane 244 Testut 338 

Smith 148 Teutsch 86 

Sogonzac 25 Texier 32 

le Sorbon, Robert 13 Texte 225 

Sorel 284 Thaller 153, 296 

Sorre 109 Thenard 69 

Souques, A 183, 184, 185 Thevenin 135 

Souriau, M 231 Thevenin 127, 129 

Souriau, P 269 Thiaucourt 214 

Spencer 306,324 Thoinot 85 

Spurgeon 251 Thomas, A. . .222, 226, 228, 229 

Sainte-Beuve 208, 225 Thomas, Andre 182 

Sainte-Claire Deville. . . .69,98, Thomas, Emile 210 

122, 123 Thomas, L. P 226 

St. Gilles 70 Thomas, Paul 150, 300 

Saint-Hilaire 21 Thomas, W 250, 254 

St. Leger 136 Thoulet 116, 126 

Saint-Simon . . 262, 287, 323, 324 Thureau-Dangin 245 

Sain t- Vincent 21 Thurot 209, 218 

de Stael 225 Thurot, C 223 

Stapfer 252 Ticknor 5,6 

Stein 239 Tilho 25 

Stephan 51 Tisserand 49 

Stouff 135 Tisserand, E 61 

Stourm 290 Tissier 76, 296 

Straus-Diirckheim 340 de Tocqueville 81, 281 

Strowski 228 Topinard 21, 22, 130 

Sturm 163 Torricelli 274 

Toulouse 308 

T Tournefort 57 

Taine 133,208,225,250, Toutain. . .33, 215, 216, 219,317 

263,305 Trauchy 326 

Talon 146 Trouessart 339 

Tannery, J 265 Trousseau 188, 189, 192 

Tannery, P 218, 265 Tuffier 199 

Tanon 155 Turgot 286, 324 

Tarde.. 25,82,83,152,306,325 Turnebe 207,217 

Tardif 150 Turpain 277 



454 



INDEX 



Urbain 



••71,73.75,126,276 

V 

Vacher 109 

Vacher de la Pouge 325 

Valery 299 

Vallas 298 

Vallaux 109 

Vallery 284 

Vallery-Radot 13 

Vallette 213 

Vaquez 189, 191 

Van Tieghem 58 

Varignon 275 

Vasseur 120 

Vauban 286 

Veau 200 

Velain no 

Velpeau 174, 196 

Vendryes 38, 214, 233, 241 

Verliac 200 

Verneau 22, 23, 26 

Verneilh 34 

Vernes 241, 249, 317 

Verneuil 123 

Vernier 215 

Verrier 250 

Vessiot 167 

Vezes 76 

Viala 203 

Vianey 225, 231 

Viardot 226 

Vidal 84 

Vidal-Naquet 86 

Vidal de la Blache 108, 109, no 

de Viel-Castel 226 

Vieta 163 

Vignon 77 

Vigouroux 76 

Ville 77 

de la Ville de Mirmont .... 213 
Villemain 225 



Page 



Villemin 188 

Villey 231 

Villiers 72,74 

Vinson 26 

Viollet 150 

Viollet-le-Duc 34 

Vire 24 

Vivien 281, 283 

de Vogiie 35,245 

Voisin 307 

Voltaire 81, 133, 146, 156 

W 

Waddington 136 

Wahl 77 

Walckenaer 102 

Waldeck 25 

Wallerant 125 

Walther 200 

Waltz, R 213 

Weber 265 

Weil 209,218 

Weill 136 

Weiss -176, 284, 296 

Welsch 120 

Werner 115 

Widal 191 

Wieger 239 

Wilbois 264 

Wines 82 

Winter 265 

Wolf 52,208 

Worms 326 

Wlirtz 69, 70, 202 



Yersin 189, 190 

Yves, St 148 



Zeiller 58, loi 



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